AN ENGLI 
GRAMMAR 




Class 

Book 

CopyrigttS - 



trOPYRJGHT DEPOSITS 



AN 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY 

MARY ALBERTSON 



THE BALDWIN SCHOOL 
Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania 



,(\n 



Copyright, 1921, by 
Mary Albertson 



DEC 24 7 

©CI.A653248 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I. Sentences 5 

Complete subject and complete predicate 5 

Unity of sentences 7 

Kinds of sentences 9 

II. Nouns 10 

Simple subjects (Substantives) 10 

Kinds of Nouns 11 

Number 13 

Rules for formation of the plural 13 

Gender 15 

Person 17 

III. Verbs 18 

Simple predicates 18 

Voice 18 

Kinds of verbs 18 

Tense 20 

Auxiliary verbs and verb phrases 21 

Formation of conjugations 21 

Principal parts 23 

Conjugation of infinitives and participles 24 

Use of tenses 24 

Number and person 25 

Emphatic and progressive forms 26 

Mood 30 

The Subjunctive Mood 31 

Auxiliary and notional verbs (including the uses of may 

and can, shall and will) 36 

Form for parsing a verb 42 

IV. Adjectives 44 

Kinds 44 

Articles 45 

Comparison 46 

Uses 47 

Participles 48 

Distinction between participles in form and in use .... 48 

Hanging participles 49 

Form for parsing adjectives 49 

Prepositional phrases used as adjectives 51 

Adjectival clauses 52 

3 



Chapter Page 

V. Adverbs 55 

Kinds of adverbs (according to meaning) 55 

Comparison 56 

Kinds of adverbs (according to use) 57 

Form for parsing adverbs 58 

Prepositional phrases used as adverbs 60 

Adverbial clauses 60 

VI. Nouns (continued) 62 

Case of nouns 62 

Uses of the nominative case . 62 

Interjections 62 

Rules for forming the possessive 64 

Uses of the possessive case 64 

Uses of the accusative case 65 

Form for parsing nouns 67 

Verbal nouns 68 

Infinitives 72 

Substantive clauses 73 

VII. Pronouns 75 

Kinds of pronouns 75 

Declension of personal pronouns 75 

Compound personal pronouns 76 

Pronominal adjectives 77 

Agreement of pronoun with antecedent 79 

Case of pronouns 79 

VIII. Conjunctions 80 

Kinds (according to use) _ . . 80 

Definitions of a subordinate clause 82 

Correlatives 82 

IX. Clauses 83 

Kinds of clauses > 83 

Lists of words which introduce each kind 83 

X. Kinds of Sentences 85 

Analysis of faults in sentence structure 85 

XI. Words Which May Be Used as Different Parts of 

Speech 87 

XII. Position of Words, Phrases, and Clauses 90 

XIII. Diagrams 91 



CHAPTER I 
SENTENCES 

1. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a com- 
plete thought. It is divided into two parts, the subject and 
the predicate. 

2. The subject is what you are talking about. For ex- 
ample, in 1 "The angel wrote and vanished," the angel is the 
subject. 

3. The predicate is what the subject does or is. For 
example, in 2< *The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the 
fold," came down like a wolf on the fold is the predicate; in 
3 "The elephant is very like a tree," is very like a tree is the 
predicate. 

4. Look up in the dictionary the derivation and the various mean- 
ings of sentence, subject, and predicate. 

5. Fill in the following blanks with a suitable subject : 

1. bore his severe pain heroically. 

2. turned away. 

3. are rarely betrayed. 

4. look very well. 

5. is taking the sheep to the pasture. 

6. walked in the wet fields beside his shadow and was glad. 

7. is a kindly, cheerful, sociable spirit, sympathizing with 

mankind, and knowing that to create warmth is but one of the good 
offices expected from it. 

8. — : struggles dimly through windows darkened by dust. 

9. was a man of humble birth and ungainly manners, of 

little culture beyond what his own genius supplied. 

10. sat at their palace window overlooking the sea; and 

hearing such tender music, came down to see the harper, whom they 
found surrounded by a crowd of wondering folk, hushed into silence by 
his skill. 

1 1. deserve the fair. 

12. hate definitions. 

13. In a just cause o'ercome the strong. 

1 Hunt, Abou Ben Adhetn. 

1 Byron, The Destruction of Sennacherib. 

3 Saxe, The Blind Men and the Elephant. 



14. Into the court of the king of Bucharest there walked . 

15. Far from the loud sea-beaches, 

Where he goes fishing and crying, 
Here in the inland garden, 
Why is flying? 

16. Come unto these yellow sands, 

And then take hands. 

17. proved to be nothing but an evening cloud, and had 

vanished in the night. 

18. The most fascinating figure in the history of Scotland is . 

19. "Who are ?" asked the caterpillar. 

20. So on a time when King Arthur was at London, there came . 

Fill in the following blanks with a suitable predicate : 
1. The captain . 



2. The boy's face . 

3. The brightness of the night 

4. A sea-bred boy . 

5. The fair goddess . 

6. The strong sunshine 

7. The evening wind . 



8. The warehouses of the city . 

9. Many ships . 

10. Mr. Holbrook , rubbing his hands in a very effer- 
vescence of hospitality. 

11. The most complete and healthy sleep that can be taken in the 
day . 



12. Feeble gleams of encrimsoned light . 

13. Those who injured the fairy while she was disguised as a 
snake . 

14. there a man with soul so dead, 

Who never to himself hath said, 
"This is my my native land!" 

15. The rabbit-hole . 

16. Beggars . 

17. Those who fight and run away 

18. the head that wears a crown. 

19. A crash and a splash . 

20. The ruddy brick floor . 



6. In sentence 14 you find a word with no meaning of its 
own used merely to point forward to the subject. It and 
there used in this way are called expletives. 

6 



The Duck and the Mouse in the following selection from Alice in 
Wonderland found the use of the expletive difficult to understand. 

The Mouse is trying to dry Alice and the animals who have been in 
the pool by reading them "the driest thing he knows." 

" 'Edwin and Morcar, the earls of Mercia and Northumbria, declared 
for him; and even Stigand, the patriotic archbishop of Canterbury, 
found it advisable ' 

" 'Found what?' said the Duck. 

" 'Found it, 1 the Mouse replied rather crossly: 'of course you know 
what "it" means.' 

" 'I know what "it" means well enough, when I find a thing,' said 
the Duck: 'it's generally a frog, or a worm. The question is, what 
did the archbishop find?' 

"The Mouse did not notice this question, but hurriedly went on, 
'found it advisable to go with Edgar Atheling to meet William and 
offer him the crown.' " 

7. Write three sentences in which there is used as an 
expletive, three in which it is used as an expletive. 

8. What is the usual order for the subject and predicate 
of a sentence? In which of the sentences in Exercise 5 
is the usual order not followed? What does each sentence 
gain by a change in the usual order? 

SENTENCE UNITY 

9. All the parts of a sentence should refer to the same 
general idea. It is absurd to say, "The water ran with a 
cool, pleasant sound, and we were on our way to town." 
The fact that the water ran with a cool, pleasant sound has 
apparently nothing to do with the fact that we were on our 
way to town. Of course the person who wrote the sentence 
must have had some reason in his own mind for connecting 
the two ideas or he would not have written them together. 
He must either make that reason clear in the sentence, or, 
if that is impossible, make two sentences. He probably 
meant something like this: "The sound of the running 
water seemed very cool and pleasant now that we were 
about to leave it for the hot town." 

10. Rewrite the following sentences, making any changes 
that are necessary to secure unity : 

7 



1. A thrill passed over the crowds lining the streets, men and boys 
stood with uncovered heads while everyone leaned far out over the 
curb to catch first sight of the procession. 

2. There was in this part of the isle a little hut of a house like a 
pig's hut, the turf roof of it had entirely fallen in. 

3. The room was hot, he wore a thick sea-jacket, buttoned to the 
neck, and a tall hair cap drawn down over his ears. 

4. Ulysses was for many years a wanderer; his wife was Penelope. 

5. The knight coming up the slope heard a damsel who had just 
come from a house which stood by the ruin at the top of the hill where 
she apparently lived singing a song which she had herself composed. 

6. There is not a paragraph in the book which does not contain some 
fact of value, but other writers can present facts to their readers which 
are so weighty that they slip to the ground through fingers that cannot 
hold them all. 

7. Many adventures have been his, and most of them are told of in 
these fascinating true tales, which are fully illustrated with delightful 
photographs taken on the scene of action, a place where most people 
have not been. 

8. Capri was once a residence of the Emperors and is twenty feet 
lower than it used to be. 

9. Not only can owls fluff out their loose, mottled plumage, but they 
live upon mice. 

10. She was the most celebrated baby of the Gardens, and lived in 
a palace all alone, so people rang the bell, and up she got out of bed, 
though it was past six o'clock, and she lighted a candle and opened the 
door, and then they all cried with great rejoicings, "Hail, Queen of 
England." 

11. I was really quite shocked the other day, for Mr. Knightley 
called one morning, and Jane was eating these apples, and we talked 
about them, and said how much she enjoyed them, and he asked 
whether we had not got to the end of our stock. 

12. He said that he would send some more; so I begged he would not; 
for really as to ours being gone, I could not absolutely say that we had 
a great many left — it was but half a dozen, indeed ; but they should all 
be kept for Jane; and I could not at all bear that he should be sending 
us more, so liberal as he had been already; and Jane said the same. 

13. He took one of the nice little trouts on his plate, and, by way of 
experiment, touched its tail with his finger, to his horror, it was im- 
mediately turned from an admirably fried brook-trout into a gold-fish. 

14. For an instant, the lake remained perfectly smooth, then, a 
little breeze sprang up, and caused the water to dance, glitter, and 
sparkle in the early sunbeams. 



15. Then she led Theseus along by the hand until they came to a 
dark, shadowy grove, where the moonlight wasted itself on the tops of 
the trees, without shedding hardly so much as a glimmering beam upon 
their pathway, after going a good way through this obscurity, they 
reached a high, marble wall, which was overgrown with creeping plants, 
that made it shaggy with their verdure. 

16. School as usual, in the afternoon to a picnic, but it rained. 

17. He came to the cross-roads, which was the way to take he 
wondered. 

18. Think well before you begin, when you have carefully considered, 
then act promptly. 

19. They were talking loudly, and I hung at the door, almost afraid 
to enter. 

20. George Washington, who was a great general, could not tell a lie. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES 

(1) " 'Shove that under your feet,' he observed to the Mole, as he 
passed it down into the boat. 

(2) " 'What's inside it?' asked the Mole, wriggling with curiosity. 

(3) " 'There's cold chicken inside it?' replied the Rat briefly: 'cold- 
tonguecoldhamcoldbeefpickledgherkinssaladfrenchrollscresssandwiches- 
pottedmeatgingerbeerlemonadesoda water — ' 

(4) " 'O stop, stop,' cried the Mole in ecstacies: 'This is too 
much!' " Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

11. In the selection given above thoughts are expressed in 
four different ways. (1) The Rat commands; (2) the Mole 
asks a question; (3) the Rat makes a statement of fact; 
(4) the Mole exclaims. 

A sentence that expresses a thought as a command or an 
entreaty is an imperative sentence. 

A sentence that expresses a thought as a question is an 
interrogative sentence. 

A sentence that makes a statement is a declarative sentence. 

Punctuation: Imperative and declarative sentences are followed by 
a period, interrogative sentences by a question mark, exclamatory 
sentences by an exclamation point. 

12. Write four sentences of each kind, paying special 
attention to punctuation. 

13. Look up in the dictionary the derivation of imperative, inter- 
rogative, declarative, exclamatory. 

9 



CHAPTER II 

NOUNS 

14. The one main word in the subject is the Simple 
subject of the sentence. It is usually a noun or pronoun. 

In the sentence, "The cat's name is Pershing," you are 
not talking about the or the cat but name; name is the simple 
subject and is a noun. 

15. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 

16. A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun; 
.for example, he or it. 

Nouns can be used in other ways than as simple subjects. 

17. Find simple subjects in the following : 

1. "The Countess left poor Otto with a caress and buffet simul- 
taneously administered." 

2. "There was no etiquette at these small drawing-rooms." 

Stevenson, Prince Otto. 

3. "Are five nights warmer than one night ?" 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

4. "In a certain town of Persia there lived two brothers." 

5. "The cunning magician led the boy still further out of the city, 
away into the country and up among the hills." 

6. "Thinking they must be robbers, and being afraid, without a 
thought what was to become of his asses, AH Baba climbed a large tree 
and hid himself in the branches." 

Arabian Nights. 

7. "Tomorrow night another twelve men will come ." 

8. "A tailor and a goldsmith were wandering together one evening 
as the sUn was setting behind the hills, when they heard the sound of 
distant music, which grew more and more distinct." 

9. "When the marriage day came, the two stepsisters, wishing to 
share Cinderella's fortune, contrived to be present." 

Grimm, Fairy Tales. 



1 Note to the Teacher: It will be impossible for the pupil to distinguish the simple 
subject from any other conspicuous substantive unless he is familiarized at this point 
with the principle of subordination. He need know nothing definite about methods 
of subordination until he begins to study modifying words, phrases, and clauses. But 
in choosing the simple subject in most of the sentences given above he should notice 
that certain ideas are made dependent on certain others or are at least made of secondary 
importance to them by the form in which the sentence is cast. 

10 



10. "The panther lay gasping for breath, his head just out of water, 
while the monkeys stood three deep on the red stone steps, dancing 
up and down with rage, ready to spring upon him from all sides if he 
came out to help Baloo." 

11. "An Indian grazing-ground is all rocks and scrub and tussocks 
and little ravines, among which the herds scatter and disappear." 

Kipling, The Jungle Books. 

12. "Paths from everywhere crowd like children to the pond." 

Barrie, The Little White Bird. 

13. "Then, suddenly, shaken by the air-currents, the delicate moor- 
ing breaks and flies through space." 

14. "The little spiders fly off and away, hanging to their threads." 

15. "At last the whole family has disappeared, carried afar by its 
flying ropes." 

16. "Neither my grandfather nor my grandmother on my mother's 
side cared in the least about insects." 

Fabre, Insect Adventures. 

17. "Along the extreme eastern shore lies the old sheep meadow, 
which is a mile and a half long, and the largest meadow in all Oland, 
where animals can graze and play and run about, as free as if they 
were in a wilderness." 

Lagerlof, Wonderful Adventures of Nils. 

18. "Ducks and geese walked about and fed on the meadow." 

19. "The entrance to the cave is four feet high and four feet wide, 
and is in the face of a lofty perpendicular cliff — the seawall." 

20. "And the last night of the seven was the stormiest of all." 

Twain, Innocents Abroad. 

18. Make a list of all the substantives in the sentences 
given above, first of all that name persons, then of all that 
name places, then of all that name things. Mention whether 
each is a noun or a pronoun. 

KINDS OF NOUNS 

"A certain king had three daughters. The two elder were charming 
girls, but the beauty of the youngest was so wonderful that language 
is too poor to express its due praise. The fame of her beauty was so 
great that strangers from neighboring countries came in crowds to 
enjoy the sight, and looked on her with amazement, paying her that 
homage which is due only to Venus herself. In fact, Venus found her 
altars deserted, while men turned their devotion to this young virgin. 
As she passed along, the people sang her praises, and strewed her way 
with chaplets and flowers." Bulnnch, The Age of Fable. 

11 



There are four different kinds of nouns in the selection 
given above. King, daughters, girls, for instance, are com- 
mon nouns ; Venus is a proper noun ; beauty and fame are 
abstract nouns ; crowds is a collective noun. 

19. A common noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing of a certain class. 

20. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, 
place, or thing. A proper noun always begins with a capital 
letter. 

21. An abstract noun is the name of something which 
exists only in the mind, the name of something which can- 
not be perceived through any of the five senses. 

22. A collective noun is the name of a group of persons 
or things. It may be either common or proper. 

23. Substitute a proper noun for each of the following 
common nouns : 



goddess 


book 


ocean 


city 


poem 


country 


girl 


state 


wanderer 


river 


boy 


friend 


pirate 


knight 


dog 


picture 


hero 


villain 


oracle 


war 



24. Form an abstract noun from each of the following 
words : 



beautiful 


good 


sincere speak 


famous 


bad 


cruel believe 


wise 


honest 


slave confide 


true 


silent 


laugh explore 


iust 


free 


boy hinder 


25. Substitute a collective noun for each of the following 


soldier Indian 


bees 


people of one household 


people cows 


student 


people who have the same 
political belief 


sheep musician 


actor 


people under one government. 


birds fish 


Scotchman 


people gathered together to 
make laws 


sailor ship 


workman 


people gathered together to 
judge a case 



12 



26. Tell the kind of each noun in the following selections : 
A. "On the sea and at the Hogue, sixteen hundred ninety-two, 

Did the English fight the French, — woe to France ! 
And, the thirty-first of May, helter-skelter thro' the blue, 
Like a crowd of frightened porpoises a shoal of sharks pursue, 
Came crowding ship on ship to St. Malo on the Ranee, 
With the English fleet in view. 

" 'Twas the squadron that escaped, with the victor in full chase; 

First and foremost of the drove, in his great ship, Damfreville; 

Close on him fled, great and small, 

Twenty-two good ships in all; 

And they signalled to the place 

'Help the winners of a race! 

Get us guidance, give us harbour, take us quick — or, quicker still, 

Here's the English can and will!' " 

Browning, Herve Riel. 
B. "This was the grand stair! I thought; and with the thought, a 
gust of a kind of angry courage came into my heart. My uncle had 
sent me here, certainly to run great risks, perhaps to die. I swore I 
would settle that 'perhaps,' if I should break my neck for it; got me 
down upon my hands and knees; and as slowly as a snail, feeling before 
me every inch, and testing the solidity of every stone, I continued to 
ascend the stair. The darkness, by contrast with the flash, appeared 
to have redoubled; nor was that all, for my ears were now troubled 
and my mind confounded by a great stir of bats in the top part of the 
tower, and the foul beasts, flying downwards, sometimes beat about my 
face and body." 

Stevenson, Kidnapped. 

NUMBER 

27. A noun in the singular number is the name of one 
person, place, or thing. 

28. A noun in the plural number is the name of more 
than one person, place, or thing. 

29. Rules for the Formation of the Plural 

1. Add s or the extra syllable, es, to the singular. To desk, for 
instance, add s, for desks can be easily pronounced. To church, for 
instance, add es, for churchs cannot be easily pronounced. 

2. In nouns ending in y preceded by a Consonant, change the y to i 
and add es. The plural of lily is lilies, but the plural of valley is valleys. 

The vowels are a e i o u and sometimes y. All other letters are consonants. 

13 



*To most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es. 

In neither of these cases is the es pronounced as an extra syllable. 

3. In the following nouns change the / to v and add s or es. 

calf elf loaf 

knife wolf half 

self leaf life 

wharf shelf beef 

wife sheaf thief 

4. Change the vowel. The plural, for instance, of man is men. 

5. Make no addition or change. The plural of deer is deer. 

6. 2 For several nouns use the Early English plural in en. The plural 
of child is children. 

7. For many foreign words even after they have become part of the 
English language use the original plural form. The plural of crisis is 
crises. 

8. A noun composed of two or more words is a compound noun. 
Usually to form the plural of a compound noun make the principal 
word plural. The plural of court-martial is courts-martial. To form 
the plural of compound nouns ending in Jul add 5 to the end of the 
word. The plural of handful is handfuls. In. a few compound nouns 
both words are made plural. The plural of man-servant is men-servants. 

9. To figures, letters, and signs add 's. The plural of 4 is 4's, of t 
is t's, of - is -'s. 

10. To proper nouns add s. There are no exceptions to this rule. 
In the case of names of which the title Mr., Miss, or Master is a part, 
make plural either the title or the name. The plural of Miss Cary is 
either The Misses Cary or The Miss Carys. 

Some nouns such as riches have no singular. 

Some nouns such as news are plural in form but singular in meaning. 

30. Write the plural of the following words. Be sure 
that you know how to spell each of the words and what each 
means, 
box scarf 3 bridge boy mouse 

1 The following are exceptions: 

banjos altos folios dominos 

pianos sopranos quartos dynamos 

solos octavos cantos 

1 What is the difference in meaning between brothers and brethren; pennies and 
pence; shots and shot? 

8 Observe that a noun ending in silent e drops the e before, adding the additional 
syllable es. 

14 



person 


sheep 


x path 


alumnus 


hero 


people 


woman 


mouse 


alumna 


piano 


ox 


cuff 


calf 


baby- 


forget-me-not 


wharf 


cupful 


potato 


hoof 


alley 


Mr. Lane 


Mrs. Lane 


Mary 


tableau 


Dombey and Son 



GENDER 

31. A noun which is the name of a male is of the masculine 
gender. 

A noun which is the name of a female is of the feminine 
gender. 

A noun which is the name of a thing which is neither male 
nor female is of the neuter gender. 

32. What is the gender of each of the following words? 

king Mr. Allen hero 

queen Mrs. Allen heroine 

Observe that these words illustrate three different ways of 
forming the feminine from the masculine : 

1. The use of a different word. 

2. The use of a 2 prefix. 

3. The use of a 2 sufnx. The most usual suffix is ess. 

33. What is the gender of each of the following nouns? 
If it is masculine give the feminine form; if feminine, give 
the masculine. Which may be either masculine or feminine ? 

girl 

czarina 

person 

niece 

carpet 

Tell the kind, number, and gender of each noun in 
the following selections : 

"I told the two women that I could easily tow them across this 
narrow piece of water; and instructing Mrs. Leeks to take hold of 
the tail of my coat, while Mrs. Aleshine grasped her companion's 
dress, I began to swim slowly toward the beach, towing my companions 
behind me. 



wizard 


duck 


host 


tree 


heir 


shepherd 


sun 


sultan 


uncle 


teacher 


34. 


Tell the 1 



brother 


wife 


lady 


hope 


sailor 


man-servant 


actor 


master 


duke 


peace 


Roberta 


woman 


mermaid 


star 


friend 



1 The change of the th sound and of the 5 sound in certain words is like the change 
of / to v, but it is not indicated by the spelling. 

2 Look up prefix and suffix in the dictionary. 

15 



" ' Goodnessf ul gracious me!' suddenly exclaimed Mrs. Aleshine 
with a great bounce and a splash, 'look at the ^shes!' 

"The water in the lagoon was so clear that it was almost trans- 
parent, and beneath us and around us we could see ^sh, some large 
and some small, swimming about as if they were floating in the air, 
while down below the white sandy bottom seemed to sparkle in the 
sunlight. 

" 'Now don't jerk my skeert off on account of the fishes,' said Mrs. 
Leeks. 'I expect there was just as many outside, though we couldn't 
see 'em. But I must say that this water looks as if it had been boiled 
and filtered.' 

"If any inhabitant of the island had then been standing on the 
wharf, he would have beheld on the surface of the lagoon the peculiar 
spectacle of a man's head surmounted by a wet and misshapen straw 
hat, and followed by two other heads, each wearing a dripping and 
bedraggled bonnet, while beneath, among the ripples of the clear 
water, would have been seen the figures belonging to these three heads, 
each dressed in the clothes ordinarily worn on land. 

"As I swam I could see before me, on the island, nothing but a mass 
of low-growing, tropical vegetation, behind which rose some palms and 
other trees. I made for the little wharf, from which steps came down 
into the water, and as soon as we reached it we all clambered rapidly 
up, and stood dripping upon the narrow platform, stamping our feet 
and shaking our clothes." 

Stockton, The Casting Away of Mrs. Leeks and Mrs. Aleshine. 

THE DAFFODILS 

"I wandered lonely as a cloud 

That floats on high o'er vales and hills, 

When all at once I saw a 2 crowd, — 
A 2 host, of golden daffodils, 

Beside the lake, beneath the trees, 

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. 

"Continuous as the stars that shine 
And twinkle on the milky way, 
They stretched in never-ending line 

Along the margin of a bay: 
Ten thousand saw I at a glance, 
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. 



i What is the difference in meaning between the two forms of the plural of fish? 
2 Observe that a collective noun may be singular or plural in form. 

16 



"The waves beside them danced, but they 

Outdid the sparkling waves in glee; 
A poet could not but be gay 

In such a jocund company. 
I gazed, and gazed, but little thought 
What wealth the show to me had brought: 

"For oft, when on my couch I lie 

In vacant or in pensive mood, 

They flash upon that inward eye 

Which is the bliss of solitude ; 

And then my heart with pleasure fills, 

And dances with the daffodils." 

Wordsworth. 

PERSON 

35. The pronoun I and its plural we are first person ; the 
pronoun you and its plural you are second person; the pro- 
nouns he, she, and it, and their plural they are third person. 
These pronouns are called the personal pronouns because 
there is a different pronoun for each person. 

36. Any substantive, whether it be the name of person, 
place, or thing, is first, second, or third person. Any noun 
for which you may substitute I or we is first person; any 
noun for which you may substitute you is second person; 
any noun for which you may substitute he, she, it or they is 
third person. 

37. What is the person of each substantive in the follow- 
ing selection? 

"The first thing she heard was a general chorus of 'There goes Bill!' 
then the Rabbit's voice alone — 'Catch him, you by the hedge' — then 
silence, and then another confusion of voices — 'Hold up his head — 
Brandy now — Don't choke him — How was it, old fellow? What hap- 
pened to you? Tell us all about it!' " 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 



17 



CHAPTER III 
VERBS 

38. A predicate is what the subject does or is. 

Just as the main word in the subject is called the simple 
subject, the main word in the predicate is called the Simple 
predicate. It is always a verb. 

39. A verb expresses action or state of being. 

In the sentence, "The Assyrian came down like a wolf on 
the fold," came is the simple predicate and is a verb. 

A verb may be used in other ways than as the simple 
predicate. 

VOICE 

40. Voice is the difference in the form of the verb that 
shows whether the person, place, or thing named by the 
subject acts or is acted upon. 

So in the sentence, 2 " Antaeus loves the Pygmies," Antaeus 
is doing the loving; the verb loves is in the active voice. 

If the sentence were, "The Pygmies are loved by Antaeus," 
the Pygmies, the people named by the subject, would be 
receiving the love ; the verb are loved would be in the passive 
voice. 

KINDS OF VERBS 

41. A 3 transitive verb is a verb which can be used in the 
passive voice. 

In the sentence, "The forty thieves when they returned 
to the cave saw that their secret hiding place had been dis- 
covered," returned is intransitive, saw is transitive, had been 
discovered is transitive. 

42. There are two kinds of intransitive verbs, complete 
and linking:. 



1 A simple predicate, unlike a simple subject, may consist of more than one word. 
A simple predicate which consists of more than one word is called a verb phrase. 

2 Hawthorne, Tanglewood Tales. 

3 A verb is transitive if it is used transitively in the sentence in which it stands. 

18 



A complete verb is one which needs no other word to 
complete its meaning. 

In the sentence, "The postman came," came is complete. 

Even if the sentence were, "The postman came early this 
morning," came would be complete, for early this morning is 
not needed to complete its meaning. 

But in the sentence, "The little princess was beautiful," 
was links beautiful with princess. 

A linking verb is an intransitive verb which needs some 
other word to complete its meaning. 

43. Make a list of the verbs in the following sentences. 
Give the voice of each and tell whether each is transitive or 
intransitive, and if it is intransitive whether it is complete 
or incomplete. 

1. "Oh, East is East, and West is West. " 

Kipling, The Ballad of East and West. 

2. "For my indoor pond, the blacksmith made me a framework of 
iron rods. The carpenter ... set the framework on a wooden base 
and supplied it with a movable board as a lid; he then fixed thick 
panes of glass in the four sides. The bottom of the pond was made 
of tarred sheet iron. ... It held about ten or twelve gallons." 

Fabre, Insect Adventures. 

3. "On the wooden board-walk in front of the cottage, hopped a 
gray sparrow." 

"The boy read and nodded and fought against drowsiness." 
"He placed himself before the glass and closed his eyes." 
"It was wondrously beautiful weather! It budded, and it rippled, 
and it murmured, and it twittered — all around him." 

" The wild geese were in the lake before him. . . . They had bathed 
and primped, and now they lay and gulped half -rotten pond-weed and 
water- clover." 

"Rats are not held in very high esteem by other animals, but the 
black rats at Glimminge castle were an exception. . . . They were 
found in every cellar; in every attic; in larders and cowhouses and 
barns ; in breweries and flour-mills ; in churches and castles ; in every 
man-constructed building. But now they were banished from all this 
— and were almost exterminated." 

Lagerlof, The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. 
19 



4. " The rain is raining all around, 

It falls on field and tree, 

It rains on the umbrellas here, 

And on the ships at sea." 

Stevenson, A Child's Garden of Verses. 

5. "The shades of eve come slowly down, 

The woods are wrapped in deeper brown, 
The owl awakens from her dell, 
The fox is heard upon the fell." 

Scott, The Lady of the Lake. 

6. "Thus the ships were driven headlong, and their sails were torn 
to shreds by the might of the wind. So we lowered the sails into the 
hold, in fear of death, but rowed the ships landward apace." 

"Then they took the garments from the wain, in their hands, and 
bore them to the black water, and briskly trod them down in the 
trenches, in busy rivalry." 

Homer, The Odyssey (translated by Lang). 

7. "Then at the last Sir Turquine waxed faint, and gave somewhat 
aback, and bare his shield low for weariness. That espied Sir Launcelot 
and leaped upon him fiercely and gat him by the beaver of his helmet, 
and plucked him down on his knees, and anon he raced off his helm, 
and smote his neck in sunder." 

"And on the morn the damosel and he took their leave and thanked 
the knight, and so departed, and rode on their way until they came to 
a great forest." 

Malory, The Morte d 1 Arthur. 

8. "He rubbed his eyes — it was a bright, sunny morning. The 
birds were hopping and twittering among the bushes, and the eagle 
was wheeling aloft, and breathing the pure mountain breeze." 

"He obeyed with fear and trembling; they quaffed the liquor in 
profound silence, and then returned to their game." 

Irving, Rip Van Winkle. 

TENSE 

44. The present tense of the verb denotes present time. 
For instance, the present tense of the verb love in the first 
person is I love; in the second person, you love; in the third 
person, he {she or it) loves. 

The past tense denotes past time. For instance, the past 
tense of the verb love in the first person is I loved. 

20 



The future tense denotes future time. For instance, the 
future tense of the verb love in the first person is I shall love; 
in the second person, you will love; in the third person, he 
{or she or it) will love. 

The future tense is interesting for two reasons; in the 
first place, the predicate itself is composed of two words; 
in the second place, the first of these words changes in the 
second and third persons. 

45. A predicate when it is composed of more than one 
word is called a verb phrase. A verb phrase consists of a 
main verb and one or more Auxiliary verbs. 

46. Give the present, past, and future tenses of the fol- 
lowing verbs in all three persons in the singular and plural 
numbers, active and passive voices : 

kill find see pursue hear 

47. What is the verb which is the auxiliary of the passive 
voice ? 

48. What changes are there in the form of the main verb 
in the conjugation? 

49. What three forms of each of the five verbs given is 
it necessary to know in order to conjugate them? These 
three forms are called the principal parts of the verbs. 

50. Conjugate as fully as possible the auxiliary verb be. 
Can be be used as a main verb ? 

51. Give ten sentences in which some form of be is used 
as an auxiliary verb, ten in which it is used as a main verb. 

52. Often you find two verbs together which do not 
compose a verb phrase; that is, often you find two verbs 
together neither of which is auxiliary to the other. 

Tell whether each of the verbs in the following selections 
is an auxiliary verb or a main verb. Make a list of all verb 
phrases. 

" 'It was a peaceful scene, the morning light, the bit of open country 
framed in steep stony slopes, a high peak or two in the distance, the 
thin smoke of some distant caserios, rising straight up here and there. 

1 Look up the derivation and the various uses of auxiliary in the dictionary. 

21 



Far away behind us the guns had ceased and the echoes in the gorges 
had died out. I never knew what peace meant before .... 

" ' . . . I dismounted to bandage the shoulder of my trooper. It 
was only a nasty long scratch. While I was busy about it a bell began 
to ring in the distance. The sound fell deliciously on the ear, clear 
like the morning light. But it stopped suddenly, all at once. You 
know how a distant bell stops suddenly. I never knew before what 
stillness meant. While I was wondering at it the fellow holding our 
horses was moved to uplift his voice. He was a Spaniard, not a Basque, 
and he trolled out in Castilian that song you know, 

Oh bells of my native village, 

I am going away — good-bye! 
He had a good voice. When the last note had floated away I remounted, 
but there was a charm in the spot, something particular and individual 
because while we were looking at it before turning our horses' heads 
away, the singer said: "I wonder what is the name of this place," 
and the other man remarked: "Why there is no village here," and the 
first one insisted: "No, I mean this spot, this very place." The 
wounded trooper decided that it had no name probably. But he was 
wrong. It had a name. I heard of it by chance later. It was — 
Lastaola.' " 

Conrad, The A rrow of Gold. 

"This house, which was so large as to be fully known to none but 
some ancient officers who successively inherited the secrets of the 
place, was built as if suspicion herself had dictated the plan. To every 
room there was an open and secret passage, every square had a com- 
munication with the rest, either from the upper stories by private 
galleries, or by subterranean passages from the lower apartments. 
Many of the columns had unsuspected cavities, in which a long race 
of monarchs had deposited their treasures. They had closed up the 
opening with marble, which was never to be removed but in the utmost 
exigencies of the kingdom, and recorded their accumulations in a book 
which was itself concealed in a tower not entered but by the emperor 
attended by the prince who stood next in succession." 

Johnson, Rasselas. 

53. The present perfect tense denotes action or being 
taking place in past time and continuing into the present. 
For instance, the present perfect tense of the verb love in 
the first person is I have loved. 

The past perfect tense denotes action or being taking 

22 



place in past time before some definite point in the past. For 
instance, the past perfect tense of the verb love in the first 
person is I had loved. 

The future perfect tense denotes action or being taking 
place in future time before some definite point in the future. 
For instance, the future perfect tense of the verb love in the 
first person is / shall have loved; in the second person, you 
will have loved; in the third person, he {or she or it) will have 
loved. 

54. Write a sentence in which you show clearly that a 
verb in the present perfect tense denotes action taking place 
in past time and continuing into the present. 

Write a sentence in which you show clearly that a verb 
in the present perfect tense denotes being taking place in 
past time and continuing into the present. 

Write a sentence in which you show clearly that a verb 
in the past perfect tense denotes action taking place in past 
time before some definite point in the past. 

Write a sentence in which you show clearly that a verb 
in the future perfect tense denotes action taking place in 
future time before some definite point in the future. 

55. Write the full conjugation, singular and plural, active 
and passive, of the following verbs in the perfect tenses: 

punish reward hinder meet feed 

56. What verb is used as the auxiliary of the perfect 
tenses? Conjugate it in full. 

57. Give ten sentences in which some form of have is 
used as an auxiliary verb, ten in which it is used as a main 
verb. 

58. What are the principal parts of be and of have? 

59. The principal parts of the transitive verb lay are lay, 
laid, laid; of the intransitive verb lie are lie, lay, lain. 

Conjugate lay, using this sentence throughout, "I lay the 
book on the table." 

Conjugate lie, using this sentence throughout, "I lie on 
the grass and watch the clouds." 

23 



60. The names of the three principal parts are (1) present 
infinitive, (2) past indicative, (3) past participle. 

Infinitive Past Tense Past Particifle 

(to) love loved loved 

(to) come came come 

61. A verb that forms its past tense and past participle 
by adding d or ed to the infinitive form is called a regular 
verb. A verb that forms its past tense or past participle in 
any other way is called an irregular verb. 

62. (1) The infinitive is the form of the verb which is 
usually preceded by the word to (which is called the sign of 
the infinitive). 

The conjugation of the infinitive of the verb love may be 
given as follows : 

Active Passive 

Present Present 

to love to be loved 

Present Perfect Present Perfect 

to have loved to have been loved 

(2) Thejmst^tense you understand. 

63. (3) besides the past participle there is also a present 
participle and a present perfect participle. 

The conjugation of the participles of the verb love may be 
given as follows: 

Active Passive 

Present Present 

loving being loved 

Past Past 

loved 

Present Perfect Present Perfect 

having loved having been loved 

USE OF TENSES 

64. There are two principles to be remembered in the 
use of tenses : 

(1) In referring to the same time use the same tense. 

1 The names given the tenses of the infinitives and participles are not those recom- 
mended by thefjoint Committee on Nomenclature. 

24 



(2) To indicate that an action takes place before some 
given time use one of the perfect tenses. 

65. Which verbs in the following sentences are used in 
an incorrect tense ? 

1. The boy sat in safety under the wooden hat, and heard all about 
how they laboured and struggled in this place, to equip the navies which 
had gone out from here. 

2. The palace is supposed to be built in the time of Elizabeth. 

3. It would have been better to answer the letter. 

4. She was asked to go. 

5. I should like to be present at the battle of Waterloo. 

6. He knew that the telephone is a recent invention. 

7. He knew that Leonardo painted pictures. 

8. He knew that the earth is round. 

9. Then she began looking about, and she notices that what could 
be seen from the old room is quite common and uninteresting, but that 
all the rest is different as possible. 

10. I am going down the street. I meet a man. I said to him, 
"How far is it to London?" 

NUMBER AND PERSON 

66. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 
In the sentence, " 'At last,' the Dodo said, 'everybody 

has won, and all must have prizes,' " has is singular number, 
third person, agreeing with its subject everybody: must is 
plural number, third person, agreeing with its subject all. 

67. Neither the participle nor the infinitive is a finite 
form of the verb; that is, it does not agree with its subject 
in number and person. 

The form of the infinitive can, in fact, be affected by no 
other word in the sentence. 

68. Give the number and person of each verb in the 
selection in Exercise 34. 

69. I. The following pronouns are always singular: 
either, each, every. When they are used as adjectives they 
modify singular nouns. 

11. A verb which has two or more subjects must be plural 
unless each subject is considered alone and is singular, 

25 



III. When the subject though plural in form is singular 
in sense the verb must be singular. 

IV. A collective noun singular in form if it names a col- 
lection as a whole takes a singular verb; if it refers to the 
members of the collection it takes a plural verb. 

70. Supply the proper form of the verb in each of the 
blanks in the following sentences : 

1. Each purple peak, each flinty spire, (was bathed, were bathed) 
in floods of living fire. 

2. There (was, were) never a leaf on bush or tree. 

3. A hundred dollars (is, are) not a very good salary, 

(is, are) it? 

4. There are no leaves left on the tree, (is, are) there? 

5. The main part of the army (was, were) still in France. 

71. besides the regular conjugation, there are Emphatic 
and Progressive conjugations. The Emphatic conjugation 
is formed by using the auxiliary do with the first principal 
part of the verb. The Progressive conjugation is formed by 
using the auxiliary be with the present participle of the verb. 

72. Make a list of all the verb phrases in the following 
selections that belong to the progressive conjugation : 

"The Mole had been working very hard all the morning, spring- 
cleaning his little home. First with brooms, then with dusters; then 
on ladders and step and chairs, with a brush and a pail of whitewash; 
till he had dust in his throat and eyes, and splashes of whitewash all 
over his black fur, and an aching back and weary arms. Spring was 
moving in the air above and in the earth below and around him, pene- 
trating even his dark lowly little house with its spirit of divine discon- 
tent and longing. It was small wonder, then, that he suddenly flung 
down his brush on the floor, said 'Brother!' and 'O blow!' and also 
'Hang spring-cleaning!' and bolted out of the house without even 
waiting to put on his coat. Something above was calling him imperi- 
ously, and he made for the steep little tunnel which answered in his 
case to the gravelled carriage-drive owned by animals whose residences 
are nearer to the sun and air. ..." 

Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

1 The Joint Committee on Nomenclature mentions also Interrogative and Negative 
conjugations. 



26 



"When banners are waving, 

And lances a-pushing; 
When captains are shouting, 

And war-horses rushing; 
When cannon are roaring, 

And hot bullets flying, 
He that would honour win 

Must not fear dying. 

"Though shafts fly so thick 

That it seems to be snowing; 
Though streamlets with blood 

More than water are flowing ; 
Though with sabre and bullet 

Our bravest are dying, 
We speak of revenge, but 

We ne'er speak of flying. 

"Come, stand to it, heroes! 
The heathen are coming; 
Horsemen are round the walls, 

Riding and running; 
Maidens and matrons all 
Arm ! arm ! are crying, 
From petards the wildfire's 
Flashing and flying." 

When Banners Are Waving 

(author unknown). 

"The sun was shining on the sea, 

Shining with all his might : 
He did his very best to make 

The billows smooth and bright — 
And this was odd, because it was 

The middle of the night. 

14 The moon was shining sulkily, 
Because she thought the sun 
Had got no business to be there 

After the day was done — 
'It's very rude of him,' she said, 
' To come and spoil the fun ! ' 

27 



" The sea was wet as wet could be, 
The sands were dry as dry. 
You could not see a cloud, because 

No cloud was in the sky: 
No birds were flying overhead — 
There were no birds to fly. 

"The Walrus and the Carpenter 

Were walking close at hand: 

They wept like anything to see 

Such quantities of sand: 
'If this were only cleared away,' 
They said, 'it would be grand!' " 

Carroll, The Walrus and the Carpenter. 

"Out spoke the hardy Highland wight 
'I'll go, my chief, I'm ready: 
It is not for your silver bright, 
But for your winsome lady: — 

" 'And by my word! the bonny bird 
In danger shall not tarry; 
So though the waves are raging white 
I'll row you o'er the ferry.' 

"By this the wind grew loud apace, 
The water- wraith was shrieking; 
And in the scowl of heaven each face 
Grew dark as they were speaking." 

Campbell, Lord Ullin's Daughter. 

"Little Ellie sits alone 
'Mid the beaches of a meadow, 

By a stream-side on the grass ; 

And the trees are showering down 
Doubles of their leaves in shadow 

On her shining hair and face. 

"She has thrown her bonnet by; 
And her feet she has been dipping 
In the shallow water's flow — 
Now she holds them nakedly 
In her hand, all sleek and dripping 
While she rocketh to and fro." 

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 
Romance of the Swan's Nest. 

28 



73. Make a list of the verb phrases in the following selec- 
tions that belong to the emphatic conjugation: 

" 'O but rabbits do talk,' interposed Harold. 'I've watched them 
often in their hutch. They put their heads together and their noses 
go up and down, just like Selina's and the Vicarage girl's. Only of 
course I can't hear what they're saying.' " 

Grahame, The Golden Age. 

" 'You couldn't have it if you did want it,' the Queen said. 'The 
rule is, jam to-morrow and jam yesterday — but never jam to-day. 1 " 

" 'You ought to return thanks in a neat speech,' the Red Queen 
said, frowning at Alice as she spoke. 

" 'We must support you, you know,' the White Queen whispered, 
as Alice got up to do it, very obediently, but a little frightened. 

" 'Thank you very much,' she whispered in reply, 'but I can do 
quite well without.' 

" 'That wouldn't be at all the thing,' the Red Queen sa d very 
decidedly: so Alice tried to submit to it with a good grace. 

(" 'And they did push so!' she said afterwards, when she was telling 
her sister the history of the feast. 'You would have thought they 
wanted to squeeze me flat!') 

w In fact it was rather difficult for her to keep in her place while she 
made her speech: the two Queens pushed her so, one on each side, 
that they nearly lifted her up into the air. ' I rise to return thanks . . , 
Alice began: and she really did rise as she spoke, several inches; but 
she got hold of the edge of the table, and managed to pull herself down 
again." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

"A Chieftain to the Highlands bound 
Cries 'Boatman, do not tarry! 
And I'll give thee a silver pound 
To row us o'er the ferry!' " 

Campbell, Lord Uttin's Daughter. 

"On the sea and at the Hogue, sixteen hundred ninety- two, 
Did the English fight the French, — woe to France!" 

Browning, Herve Riel. 

"When icicles hang by the wall, 

And Dick the shepherd blows his nail, 
And Tom bears logs into the hall, 
And milk comes frozen home in pail, 
29 



When blood is nipped, and ways be foul, 
Then nightly sings the staring owl, 

To-whit! 
To-who ! — a merry note, 
While greasy Joan doth keel the pot. 
When all aloud the wind doth blow, 

And coughing drowns the parson's saw, 
And birds sit brooding in the snow, 

And Marian's nose looks red and raw, 
When roasted crabs hiss in the bowl, 
Then nightly sings the staring owl, 

To-whit ! 
To-who ! — a merry note, 
While greasy Joan doth keel the pot." 

Shakespeare, Love's Labor's Lost. 

MOOD 

74. A verb is the important word in the predicate of a 
sentence. It is the word by means of which something is 
said about the person, place, or thing named by the subject. 
If the thing said about the subject is a fact or a question 
the verb is in the indicative mood. 

In the sentence, 

1 "Leodogran, the King of Cameliard, 

Had one fair daughter, and none other child," 
the verb had is in the indicative mood. 

75. If the thing said is a command, the verb is in the 
imperative mood. 

In the sentence, 

2 "Rise; and put on your foliage, and be seen 

To come forth like the Spring-time, fresh and green 
And sweet as Flora . . . , " 
the verbs rise, put, and be seen are in the imperative mood. 
The various uses of the infinitive mood will be discussed 
later (pp. 72, 73). The forms of the infinitive mood have 
been given (p. 24). 

1 Tennyson, The Idylls of the King. 
1 Herrick, Corrinna's Maying. 

30 



76. If the thing said is something merely thought of, the 
verb is in the subjunctive mood. 

In the sentence, x " If to do were as easy as to know what 
were good to do, chapels had been churches, and poor men's 
cottages princes' palaces," the verbs were, were, and had been 
are in the subjunctive mood. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

77. The subjunctive mood of certain verbs is different 
in form from the indicative mood; for instance, the present 
and past tenses of the verb be in the subjunctive are as 
follows : 

Present 



Singular 




Plural 


I be 




We be 


You be 




You be 


Hebe 


Past 


They be 


Singular 




Plural 


I were 




We were 


You were 




You were 


He were 




They were 



78. The subjunctive mood of certain verbs is different in 
a few forms from the indicative mood; for instance, the 
present and past tenses of the verb have in the subjunctive 
are as follows : 

Present 



Singular 




Plural 


I have 




We have 


You have 




You have 


He have 


Past 


They have 


Singular 




Plural 


I had 




- We had 



79. The subjunctive is also sometimes formed by using 
the auxiliaries may, might, and should. For instance, in the 
sentence, 2 "They must be silent in order that he may tell 
them his stories," may tell is in the subjunctive mood. 



1 Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice. 
" Andersen, Fairy Tales. 



31 



80. The subjunctive is used to express : 

(1) A wish. 

Long live the king ! 

(2) Purpose. 

" Most mighty Caesar, let me know some cause, 
Lest I be laughed at when I tell them so." 

"Be silent that you may hear." 

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar. 

(3) Uncertainty. 

"I dare not delay any longer upon my journey, for the caravan that 
has waited for me may depart without me." 

Van Dyke, The Story of the Other Wise Man. 

(4) A supposition unless it is an assumption of fact. 
Subjunctive. 

"The harp that once through Tara's halls 
The soul of music shed, 
Now hangs as mute on Tara's walls 
As if that soul were fled." 
Moore, The Harp That Once Through Tara's Halls. 

" 'Mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam, 

Be it ever so humble there's no place like home ." 

Payne, Home, Sweet Home. 

"Indeed, were it not for the dikes, and the high banks of the canals, 
one could stand almost anywhere in Middle Holland without seeing a 
mound or a ridge between the eye and the ' Jumping-off place.' " 

Dodge, Hans Brinker. 
Indicative. 

" 'Tis pleasant, sure, to see one's name in print; 
A book's a book, although there's nothing in't." 

Byron, English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. 

" . . . If eyes were made for seeing, 
Then Beauty is its own excuse for being." 

Emerson, The Rhodora. 

(5) 2 That which is not yet realized or which depends for realization 
on certain circumstances. 

"Where, where was Roderick then? 
One blast upon his bugle horn 
Were worth a thousand men." 

Scott, Lady of the Lake. 

1 The conclusion of a contrary to fact condition belongs to this class. 

32 



"He is a sober, stay-at-home elf — nothing much to look at, even if 
you did see him, which you are not likely to do — only a little old man, 
about a foot high, all dressed in brown, with a brown face and hands, 
and a brown peaked cap, just the color of a brown mouse." 

Mulock, The A dventures of a Brownie. 

81. Give the mood and tense of each verb in the following 
selections : 

"... Never fear quarrels, but seek adventures. I have taught you 
how to handle a sword; you have thews of iron, a wrist of steel. Fight 
on all occasions. ..." 

Dumas, The Three Musketeers. 

"A belt of rhododendrons grew close down to one side of our pond; 
and along the edge of it many things flourished rankly. If you crept 
through the undergrowth and crouched by the water's rim, it was 
easy — if your imagination were in healthy working order — to transport 
yourself in a trice to the heart of a tropical forest. Overhead the 
monkeys chattered, parrots flashed from bough to bough, strange large 
blossoms shone all round you, and the push and rustle of great beasts 
moving unseen thrilled you deliciously. And if you lay down with 
your nose an inch or two from the water, it was not long ere the old 
sense of proportion vanished clean away. The glittering insects that 
darted to and fro on its surface became sea-monsters dire, the gnats 
that hung above them swelled to albatrosses, and the pond itself 
stretched out into a vast inland sea, whereon a navy might ride secure, 
and whence at any moment the hairy scalp of a sea-serpent might be 
seen to emerge." Grahame, The Golden Age. 

" The Archbishop came in order to spend the last hour with her. ..." 

"... You wish to get rid of your tail, and to have instead two 
stilts, like those of human beings, in order that a young Prince may 
fall in love with you, and that you may obtain an immortal soul — is it 
not so? ..." 

" '. . . And thou, poor little Mermaid! who, following the impulse 
of thine own heart, hast done and suffered so much, thou art now 
raised to the airy world of spirits, that by performing deeds of kindness 
for three hundred years, thou may est acquire an immortal soul.' " 

"'That must not be either!' said the Princess; 'but do you all 
stand before me, that no one may see us.' " 

"As soon as he had got into the courtyard, he moved very softly, 
and the ladies were so much engrossed with counting the kisses, that 
all might go on fairly, that they did not perceive the Emperor." 

Andersen, Fairy Tales. 
33 



"Oh that it were my chief delight 
To do the things I ought!" 

Jane Taylor, For a Very Little Child. 

"Whether we wake or we sleep, 
Whether we carol or weep, 
The Sun with his Planets in chime, 
Marketh the going of Time. 

"The King in a carriage may ride, 
And the beggar may crawl at his side; 
But in the general race, 
They are traveling all the same pace." 

Fitzgerald, Chronomoros. 

"Ye know right well, how meek soe'er he seem, 
No keener hunter after glory breathes." 

" . . . In me there dwells 
No greatness, save it be some far-off touch 
Of greatness to know well I am not great." 

"I know not if I know what true love is, 
But if I know, then, if I love not him, 
I know there is none other I can love." 

Tennyson, Lancelot and Elaine. 

But war's a game which were their subjects wise 
Kings would not play at." 

Cowper, The Winter Morning. 

"Breathes there a man with soul so dead 
Who never to himself hath said, 

' This is my own, my native land ! ' 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand? 
If such there breathe, go, mark him well I 
For him no minstrel raptures swell; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim,— • 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 
The wretch, concentred all in self, 

34 



Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonour'd, and unsung." 

Scott, Lay of the Last Minstrel. 

"And better had they ne'er been born 
Who read to doubt, or read to scorn." 

Scott, The Monastery. 

"Not if I know myself at all!" 

Lamb, The Old and New Schoolmaster. 

"He is an Englishman! 

For he himself hath said it, 
And it's greatly to his credit, 
That he's an Englishman! 

"For he might have been a Rooshian 
A French or Turk or Prooshian, 

Or perhaps Itali-an. 
But in spite of all temptations 
To belong to other nations, 
He remains an Englishman." 

Gilbert, The Englishman. 

"Now landsmen all, whoever you may be, 
If you want to rise to the top of the tree 
If your soul is n't fettered to an office stool 
Be careful to be guided by this golden rule: 
Stick close to your desks and never go to sea 
And you all may be Rulers of the Queen's Navee." 

Gilbert, The First Lord's Song. 

"... Still further, M. de Treville gains ten thousand crowns a year; 
he is therefore a great noble. He began as you begin. Go to him 
with this letter; and make him your model in order that you may do 
as he has done." 

Dumas, The Three Musketeers. 

" ' Morbleu, Monsieur!' said he, 'however far I may come, it is not 
you who can give me a lesson in good manners, I warn you.' 
" 'Perhaps!' said Athos. 

" 'Ah! if I were not in such haste, and if I were not running after 
some one,' said D'Artagnan." 

Dumas, The Three Musketeers. 
35 



" Charm us, orator, till the lion look no larger than the cat." 

Tennyson, Locksley Hall Sixty Years After. 

"Thy leaf has perished in the green, 

And while we breathe beneath the sun, 
The world which credits what is done 
Is cold to all that might have been." 

Tennyson, In Memoriam. 

" '. . . Why, you might be killed by a thunderbolt if you were a 
butter-merchant!' " 

Ewing, Jackanapes. 

" 'Well, it's time we were all in bed,' said the Badger, getting up 
and fetching a fiat candle-stick." 

Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

"Now, I pray you, brothers, for charity's sake, give me somewhat 
to buy a crust of bread, e'en though it be only a penny." 

Pyle, Robin Hood. 

"I go from you to my own people — if they be my own people." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

Is the following sentence correct? 

"Martin, if dirt was trumps, what hands you would hold!" 

Lamb, Lamb's Suppers. 

AUXILIARY AND NOTIONAL VERBS 

82. After certain verbs the to of the infinitive is omitted. 
Some of these verbs are the following : bid, dare, jear, hear, 
let, make, need, please, see. 

83. Write sentences using each of these followed by an 
infinitive. 

84. "You ought to be brave for two reasons: the first is that you 
are a Gascon; and the second is that you are my son." 

Dumas, The Three Musketeers. 

In the sentence given above to be is evidently an infinitive. 
If the sentence were "You must be brave for two reasons:" 
it would not be so easy to tell that (to) be is an infinitive, 
because the to is omitted. 

Observe that all the verbs in the list given above are 
transitive. Certain intransitive verbs are followed by an 

36 



infinitive. After many of them the to is omitted. Some of 
these verbs are the following: l can, may, must, ought, used, 
shall, will, should. 

You have already observed that certain verbs, for instance, 
have and be, may be used both as auxiliary verbs and as 
principal verbs. 

In the list given above may, shall, will, should may be 
used both as auxiliary verbs and as principal verbs followed 
by an infinitive. When one of them is used as a principal 
verb it is called a notional verb, because it has a meaning of 
its own, and the infinitive which completes it is called a 
Complementary infinitive. 

85. Distinguish in the following between may used as an 
auxiliary of the subjunctive and may used as a notional verb. 
Are there any complementary infinitives ? 

"But if he went on now, the man would surely die. If he stayed, 
life might be restored. ..." 

". . . And I ask you to go with me on the pilgrimage, that we may 
have joy together in finding the Prince who is worthy to be served." 

". . . This quest is not for me. But may thy steps be prospered 
wherever thou goest. ..." 

" 'Might not this child have been the promised Prince?' he asked 
within himself, as he touched its soft cheek. 'Kings have been born 
ere now in lowlier houses than this, and the favorite of the stars may 
rise even from a cottage. . . .' " 

". . . and something whispered in his heart that, at last, he might 
succeed." 

Van Dyke, The Story of the Other Wise Man. 

" 'Yes, Violet, yes, my little Peony,' said their kind mother, 'you 
may go out and play in the new snow.' " 

Hawthorne, The Snow Image. 

" 'It's a friend of mine, — a Cheshire Cat,' said Alice. 'Allow me to 
introduce it.' 

" 'I don't like the look of it at all,' said the King. 'However, it 
may kiss my hand, if it likes.' 



1 In the Report of the Joint Committee on Nomenclature ought, shall, will, 
should, and would in certain of what are here considered as their notional uses are 
treated as auxiliaries of the subjunctive. 

2 Look up the derivation and meaning of complementary in the dictionary. 

37 



" 'I'd rather not,' the Cat remarked. 

" 'Don't be impertinent,' said the King, 'and don't look at me like 
that.' He got behind Alice as he spoke. 
" 'A cat may look at a king,' said Alice." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

"Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, 
Old Time is still a-flying, 
And this same flower that smiles to-day 
To-morrow will be dying." 

Herrick, Counsel to Girls. 

86. You know that shall is used as an auxiliary in the 
first person, singular and plural of the future tense, and that 
will is used as an auxiliary in the second and third persons, 
singular and plural of the future tense. 

Should is the past of shall; would is the past of will. The 
verbs shall and will have no other forms than the present 
and past. They are, like many of the verbs which take 
complementary infinitives, defective; that is, they exist in 
only a few forms. 

The tense which is formed by the use of should as an 
auxiliary in the first person, and would as an auxiliary in 
the second and third, is called the past of the future tense. 

87. Shall and will {should and would) used as notional 
verbs express determination, promise, command, or prophecy. 
Will {would) used as a notional verb expresses habitual or 
continued action and willingness. Shall is never used in the 
first person as a notional verb. Will used in the first person 
is always notional. Used in the second and third persons 
shall and will may be notional or auxiliary according to the 
meaning of the sentence. 

88. Examples of the use of shall and will {should and 
would) used as notional verbs to express : 

(1) Determination. 

" 'I may be under a bit of a cloud at present, but I will not be 
laughed at by a bargewoman.' " 

" 'Old Toad?' said the Rat, laughing heartily. 'He wouldn't show 
his face here alone, not for a whole hatful of golden guineas, Toad 
wouldn't.' " Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

38 



"Fair Jessica shall be my torch-bearer." 

Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice. 

(2) Promise. 

" :'. . . Come with me, dear Ratty, and your amiable friend also, 
if he will be so very good, just as far as the stable-yard, and you shall 
see what you shall see!' " 

Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

(3) Command. 

" 'Thou shalt seek the beach of sand 
Where the water bounds the elfin land; 
Thou shalt watch the oozy brine 
Till the sturgeon leaps in the bright moonshine, 
Then dart the glistening arch below, 
And catch a drop from his silver bow. 



Drake, The Culprit Fay. 

(4) Prophecy. 

" 'While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand; 
When falls the Coliseum, Rome shall fall; 
And when Rome falls — the world.' " 

Byron, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. 

(5) Habitual or continued action. 

"In ancient times, as story tells, 
The saints would often leave their cells, 
And stroll about, but hide their quality, 
To try good people's hospitality." 

Swift, Baucis and Philemon. 

(6) Willingness. 

"... There came to Cam eliard. 



Lot's wife, the queen of Orkney, Bellicent; 
Whom as he could, not as he would, the king 
Made feast for." 

Tennyson, The Coming of Arthur. 

89. Should is used in the present tense as a notional verb 
in the sense of ought. 

"'. . . You shouldn't really have gone and done it, Mole. I did 
my best to keep you from it.' " 

Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

90. Rules for the Second and Third Persons : 

39 



I. In a question the form (auxiliary or notional) is used that is 
expected in the answer. 

" '. . . Indeed, I have been a complete ass, and I know it. Will 
you overlook it this once and forgive me, and let things go on as 
before?' " 

Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

II. In indirect discourse the form (auxiliary or notional) is used 
that would be used if the discourse were direct. 

"... It was not yet seven, she said, by a long way; she knew her 
rights and she would have them . . . . " 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 
". . . Or was there a touch of pity and encouragement in that in- 
scrutable smile, a promise that even the defeated should attain a 
victory, and the disappointed should discover a prize, and the ignorant 
should be made wise, and the blind should see, and the wandering should 
come into the haven at last?" 

Van Dyke, The Story of the Other Wise Man. 

91. Distinguish in the following between shall and will 
{should and would) used as auxiliaries of the future tense 
(past future tense) and as notional verbs. Make a list of 
the complementary infinitives, with the verbs which they 
complete. 

I 

Who would be 

A mermaid fair, 

Singing alone, 

Combing her hair 

Under the sea, 

In a golden curl 

With a comb of pearl, 

On a throne? 

II 

"I would be a mermaid fair; 
I would sing to myself the whole of the day; 
With a comb of pearl I would comb my hair; 
And still as I combed I would sing and say, 
'Who is it loves me? who loves not me?' 
I would comb my hair till my ringlets would fall 
Low adown, low adown, 
From under my starry sea-bud crown 
Low adown and around, 

40 



And I should look like a fountain of gold 

Springing alone 

With a shrill inner sound, 

Over the throne 

In the midst of the hall ; 

Till that great sea-snake under the sea 

From his coiled sleeps in the central deeps 

"Would slowly trail himself sevenfold 

Round the hall where I sate, and look in at the gate 

With his large calm eyes for the love of me. 

And all the mermen under the sea 

Would feel their immortality 

Die in their hearts for the love of me." 

Tennyson, The Mermaid. 

" 'Well then,' he began afresh, 'let's pretend we're Knights of the 
Round Table ; and (with a rush) Til be Lancelot ! ' 

" 'I won't play unless I'm Lancelot,' I said. I didn't mean it 
really, but the game of Knights always began with this particular 
contest. 

" 'O please,' implored Harold. 'You know when Edward's here I 
never get a chance of being Lancelot. I haven't been Lancelot for 
weeks ! ' 

"Then I yielded gracefully. 'All right,' I said. 'I'll be Tristram.' 

" 'O, but you can't,' cried Harold again. 'Charlotte has always 
been Tristram! Be somebody else this time.' 

"Charlotte said nothing, but breathed hard, looking straight before 
her. The peerless hunter and harper was her special hero of romance, 
and rather than see the part in less appreciative hands, she would have 
gone back in tears to the stuffy schoolroom." 

Grahame, The Golden Age. 

"I was born an American; I will live an American; I shall die an 
American." 

Webster, Speech, July 17, 1850. 

"Go! you may call it madness, folly; 
You shall not chase my gloom away! 
There's such a charm in melancholy 
I would not if I could be ga}^." 

Rogers, To . 



"... And when the ducks stood on their heads suddenly, as ducks 
will, he would dive down and tickle their necks, just under where their 
chins would be if ducks had chins, till they were forced to come to the 

41 



surface again in a hurry, spluttering and angry and shaking their 
feathers at him, for it is impossible to say quite all you feel when your 
head is under water. 

He had started his spring-cleaning at a very early hour that morning, 
as people will do. . . " 

Grahame, The Wind in the Willows. 

" '. . . But what are those Master Words? I am more likely to 
give help than to ask it' — Bagheera stretched out one paw and admired 
the steel-blue ripping-chisel talons at the end of it — ' Still I should like 
to know.' 

" 'I will call Mowgli and he shall say them — if he will. Come, 
Little Brother.' " 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

" 'Mons'ous pretty place this,' he said looking out of the lattice on 
to the green, where the grass was vivid with sunset, and the shadows 
were long and peaceful. 

" 'You should see it in fair- week, sir,' said Jackanapes, shaking his 
yellow mop, and leaning back in his one of the two Chippendale arm- 
chairs in which they sat." 






. . . When I grow up I want to be a soldier too.' 
So you shall, my boy. So you shall.' " 

Ewing, Jackanapes. 

92. FORM FOR PARSING A VERB 

1. Verb 

2. Voice ( aCtive 

1 passive 



3. Kind 



T J transitive r ,. 1 . 

I. < . , .^. J linking 

I intransitive < °, 

v { complete 

jj (regular 
* \ irregular 



4. Subject 

5. Number i 5 ^^ 

[ plural 

[first 

6. Person I second 

[ third 

42 



7. Tense 



Mood 



present 
past 
future 
past future 
present perfect 
past perfect 
future perfect 
past future perfect 

indicative 
imperative 
infinitive 
subjunctive 



Parse the verbs in the following selection: 

"And what is so rare as a day in June: 

Then, if ever, come perfect days; 
Then Heaven tries the earth if it be in tune, 

And over it softly her warm ear lays: 
Whether we look, or whether we listen, 
We hear life murmur, or see it glisten; 
Every clod feels a stir of might, 

An instinct within it that reaches and towers, 
And, groping blindly above it for light, 

Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers; 
The flush of life may well be seen 

Thrilling back over hills and valleys; 
The cowslip startles in meadows green, 

The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice, 
And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean 

To be some happy creature's palace; 
The little bird sits at his door in the sun, 

Atilt like a blossom among the leaves, 
And lets his illumined being o'errun 

With the deluge of summer it receives; 
His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings, 
And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings; 
He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest, — 
In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best? 

"Now is the high tide of the year, 

And whatever of life hath ebbed away 
Comes flooding back, with a ripply cheer, 
Into every bare inlet and creek and bay; 
43 



Now the heart is so full that a drop overfills it, 
We are happy now because God wills it; 
No matter how barren the past may have been, 
'Tis enough for us now that the leaves are green; 
We sit in the warm shade and feel right well 
How the sap creeps up and the blossoms swell; 
We may shut our eyes, but we cannot help knowing 
That skies are clear and grass is growing; 
The breeze comes whispering in our ear, 
That dandelions are blossoming near, 

That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, 
That the river is bluer than the sky, 
That the robin is plastering his house hard by; 
And if the breeze kept the good news back, 
For other couriers we should not lack, 

We could guess it all by yon heifer's lowing, — 
And hark ! how clear bold chanticleer, 
Warmed with the new wine of the year, 

Tells all in his lusty crowing!" 

Lowell, The Vision of Sir Launfal. 



CHAPTER IV 
ADJECTIVES 

94. An adjective is a word which Modifies a noun or pro- 
noun. 

"At the foot of Turner Street in Salem stands a venerable mansion." 
Hawthorne, The House of Seven Gables. 

95. There are two kinds of adjectives, limiting and 
descriptive. 

An adjective that tells some quality of the person, place, 
or thing named, is a descriptive adjective. 

"Fantastic carvings brought from monkish cloisters." 

Dickens, Old Curiosity Shop. 

An adjective that points out, or tells quantity, is a limiting 
adjective. It answers the questions which? or what? or how 
much? or how many? 

1 Look up in the dictionary all the meanings of the word modifies. 

44 



"The bar silver is in the north cache; you can find it by the trend 
of the east hummock, ten fathoms south of the black crag with the face 
on it." 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 

96. One adjective may be used in different sentences as 
a descriptive or a limiting adjective. 

" 'He's quite an honest man, Tom Morgan, on'y stupid.' " (De- 
scriptive.) 

"From these dozen words I understood that the lives of all the 
honest men aboard depended upon me alone." (Limiting.) 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 

97. Three limiting adjectives, a, an, and the, are called 
articles. A and an are the indefinite articles, the the definite 
article. 

98. Make a list of all the descriptive adjectives and a 
list of all the limiting adjectives in the following selections: 

"There were in Venus's garden two fountains — one of sweet waters, 
the other of bitter. Cupid filled two amber vases, one from each 
fountain, and suspending them from the top of his quiver, hastened to 
the chamber of Psyche, whom he found asleep. He shed a few drops 
from the bitter fountain over her lips, though the sight of her almost 
moved him to pity; and then he touched her side with the point of his 
arrow." 

Gayley, Classic Myths in English Literature. 

"Then he understood that the big, checked cloth he was travelling 
over was the flat land of southern Sweden ; and he began to comprehend 
why it looked so checked and multi-coloured. The bright green checks 
he recognized first; they were rye fields that had been sown in the fall, 
and had kept themselves green under the winter snows. The yellowish- 
gray checks were stubble-fields — the remains of the oat-crop which had 
grown there the summer before. The brownish ones were old clover 
meadows: and the black ones, deserted grazing lands or plo wed-up 
fallow pastures. The brown checks with the yellow edges were, un- 
doubtedly, beech-tree forests; for in these you'll find the big trees 
which grow in the heart of the forest — naked in winter; while the little 
beech-trees, which grow along the borders, keep their dry, yellowed 
leaves way into the spring. ..." 

Lagerlof, The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. 



45 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
99. Most descriptive and a few limiting adjectives can 

be compared. 

When you use a descriptive adjective speaking of one 

person, place, or thing, or speaking of more than one without 

comparing them, it is in the positive degree. 

"Even envious Miss Briggs never spoke ill of her; high and mighty 

Miss Saltire (Lord Dexter's granddaughter) allowed that her figure was 

genteel.' " 

Thackeray, Vanity Fair. 

If you compare two persons, places, or things you use the 
comparative degree. 

"At the old gentleman's side sat a young lady more beautiful than 
pomegranate blossoms, more exquisite than the first quarter moon 
viewed at twilight through the tops of oleanders." 

O. Henry, The Trimmed Lamp. 

"The dog sprang up and stood on its hind legs. Its tail disappeared, 
its ears became long, longer , silky, golden; its nose became very red, 
its eyes became very twinkling; in three seconds the dog was gone, 
and before Gluck stood his old acquaintance, the King of the Golden 
River." 

Ruskin, The King of the Golden River. 

If you compare more than two persons, places, or things 
you use the superlative degree. 

"I remembered that the house stood but six stories at its highest 
point; ..." 

Stevenson, The Wrecker. 

100. To form the comparative add er to the positive; to form the 
superlative add est to the positive. 

^ut, as you see, it wouldn't be practical to say beautiful, beautifuler, 
beautifulest; in such cases add more to form the comparative and most 
to form the superlative. 

101. There are some irregular adjectives such as: 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

good better best 

bad worse worst 

little less least 

many more most 

1 " 'Curiouser and curiouser!' said Alice (she was so much surprised, that for the 
moment she quite forgot how to speak good English)." 

46 



102. Compare : tall, dark, famous, polite, fat, high. 

USES OF THE ADJECTIVE 

103. (1) The Direct Modifier of the Noun or Pronoun. 

"He drove his fat flocks into the wide cavern." 

Lang, Odyssey. 

(2) The Predicate Adjective. It completes a linking verb 
and modifies the subject. 

"I suppose he is so tame ..." 

Kipling, Rikki-Tikki-Tavi. 

Some of the linking verbs are the following: be, become, seem, appear. 
The passive forms of the following verbs and of certain others are 
linking: call, make, choose, appoint, name, elect. 

(3) The Adjunct. It modifies the object of the verb by- 
showing the effect the action of the verb has on the object. 
It is used only with the active voice of verbs which are link- 
ing when used in the passive. 

"... Later we will play with thee, if the Poison People leave thee 
alive." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

104. Make a list of the adjectives in the following selec- 
tions. Tell in which of the three ways each is used. 

"The cat did not reply at once. He seated himself, curled his tail 
into a graceful ring around his paws — and stared at the boy. It was a 
large black cat with one white spot on his chest. His fur lay sleek and 
soft, and shone in the sunlight. The claws were drawn in, and the 
eyes were a dull gray, with just a little narrow dark streak down the 
centre. The cat looked thoroughly good-natured and inoffensive." 

"The next instant the cat was so changed that the boy could scarcely 
believe it was the same animal. Every separate hair on his body stood 
on end. The back was bent; the legs had become elongated; the 
claws scraped the ground; the tail had grown thick and short; the 
ears were laid back; the mouth was frothy; and the eyes were wide 
open and glistened like sparks of red fire." 

"It was the most awful day that Smirre Fox had ever experienced. 
The wild geese kept on travelling over his head. They came and went 

47 



— came and went. Great splendid geese, who had eaten themselves 
fat on the German heaths and grain fields, swayed all day through the 
woods, and so close to him that he touched them many times; yet he 
was not permitted to appease his hunger with a single one of them." 
Lagerlof , The Wonderful A dventures of Nils. 

PARTICIPLES 

105. A participle is a word which is part verb, part ad- 
jective; that is, it expresses action or being and also modifies 
a substantive. 

108. Make a list of the participles in the following selec- 
tion: 

"My good blade carves the casques of men, 

My tough lance thrusteth sure, 
My strength is as the strength of ten, 

Because my heart is pure. 
The shattering trumpet shrilleth high, 

The hard brands shiver on the steel, 
The splinter's spear-shafts crack and fly, 

The horse and rider reel : 
They reel, they roll in clanging. lists, 

And when the tide of combat stands, 
Perfume and flowers fall in showers, 

That lightly rain from ladies' hands. 



"Sometimes on lonely mountain-meres 

I find a magic bark : 
I leap on board; no helmsman steers: 

I float till all is dark. 
A gentle sound, an awful light ! 

Three angels bear the holy grail: 
With folded feet, in stoles of white, 

Or sleeping wings they sail. 
Ah, blessed vision! blood of God! 

My spirit beats her mortal bars, 
As down dark tides the glory slides, 

And star-like mingles with the stars." 

Tennyson, Sir Galahad. 

107. As you know, all verb phrases contain words which 



An adjective formed from a proper noun is called a proper adjective. 

48 



are participles in form. In the sentence, 1<< Up rose Robin 
Hood one merry morn when all the birds were singing 
blithely among the leaves, and up rose all his merry men, 
each fellow washing his head and hands in the cold brown 
brook that leaped laughing from stone to stone," singing is 
part of the verb phrase which composes the predicate; it is 
not used as an adjective; that is, it is a participle in form 
only, not in use. Washing and laughing are participles. 

108. Make a list of the participles in the following selec- 
tion. Be careful not to include words which are participles 
only in form. 

"... On one part were flocks and herds feeding in the pastures, on 
another all the beasts of chase frisking in the lawns; the sprightly kid 
was bounding on the rocks, the subtle monkey rollicking in the trees, 
and the solemn elephant reposing in the shade. All the diversities of 
the world were brought together, the blessings of nature were collected, 
and its evils extracted and excluded." 

Dr. Johnson, Rasselas. 

109. Be careful not to use what is known as a "hanging 
participle" or a "loose participle;" that is, a participle which 
does not modify the substantive you intend it to modify. 

In the sentence, "Skating this morning the ice seemed very thin," 
skating apparently modifies ice. 

Rewrite the sentence so that the use of the floating participle may 
be avoided. 

Often a participle seems to modify the wrong word merely 
because of its position in the sentence. 

110. Correct the following sentences: 

I saw a house draped with flags going up the hill this morning. 
Exhausted the goal was reached. 

Having examined the little figure carefully, it seemed to him to be a 
very diminutive human being. 

111. FORM FOR PARSING ADJECTIVES 

„. j f descriptive participle 

\ limiting pronominal (see pronouns, pp. 77, 78) 

proper 



1 Pyle, Robin Hood. 

49 



I positive 

2. Degree I comparative 

[ superlative 

3. Comparison 

4. Substantive which it modifies 

{direct modifier of a substantive 
predicate adjective 
objective complement 

112. Parse the adjectives in the following selection: 
"The room was as neat as Janet or my aunt. As I laid down my 
pen, a moment since, to think of it, the air from the sea came blowing 
in again, mixed with the perfume of the flowers; and I saw the old- 
fashioned furniture brightly rubbed and polished, my aunt's inviolable 
chair and table by the round green fan in the bow- window, the drugget- 
covered carpet, the cat, the kettle-holder, the two canaries, the old 
china, the punch-bowl full of dried rose-leaves, the tall press guarding 
all sorts of bottles and pots, and my dusty self upon the sofa, taking 
note of everything. 

" Janet had gone away to get the bath ready, when my aunt, to my 
great alarm, became in one moment rigid with indignation, and had 
hardly voice to cry out, 'Janet! Donkeys!' " 

Dickens, David Copperfield. 

"But behold, there was no flock at all! None, I mean, to be seen 
any where; only at one corner of the field, by the eastern end, where 
the snow drove in, a great white billow, as high as a barn and as broad 
as a house. This great drift was rolling and curling beneath the violent 
blast, tufting and combing with rustling swirls, and carved (as in 
patterns of cornice) where the grooving chisel of the wind swept round. 
Ever and again, the tempest snatched little whiffs from the channelled 
edges, twirled them round, and made them dance over the chine of the 
monster pile, then let them lie like herring-bones, or the seams of sand 
where the tide had been. And all the while from the smothering sky, 
more and more fiercely at every blast, came the pelting pitiless arrows 
winged with murky white, and pointed with the barbs of frost. 

"But before we began again, I laid my head well into the chamber; 
and there I heard a faint 'ma-a-ah,' coming through some ells of snow, 
like a plaintive buried hope, or a last appeal. I shouted aloud to 
cheer him up, for I knew what sheep it was, to wit the most valiant of 
all the wethers, who had met me when I came home from London, 
and been so glad to see me. And then we all fell to again; and very 

50 



soon we hauled him out. Watch took charge of him at once, with an 
air of the noblest patronage, lying on his frozen fleece, and licking all 
his face and feet, to restore his warmth to him. Then fighting Tom 
jumped up at once, and made a little butt at Watch, as if nothing had 
ever ailed him, and then set off to a shallow place, and looked for some- 
thing to nibble at." 

Blackmore, Lorna Boone. 



PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES USED AS ADJECTIVES 

113. A preposition is a word that shows the relation 
between a substantive (its object) and some other word in 
the sentence. 

In the sentence, "The snow on the roof sparkled in the 
sunlight," on shows the relation between snow and roof, in 
between sparkled and sunlight. 

114. The following are some of the prepositions: aboard, about, 
above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, 
around, as for, as to, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, 
between, betwixt, beyond, but (except), by, down, during, ere, except, 
for, from, in, inside, into, of, off, on, over, past, round, since, through, 
to, toward, under, till, up, upon, with, within, without. 

115. A preposition together with its object and the modi- 
fiers of the object forms a prepositional phrase. 

116. In the sentence given above the phrase on the roof 
modifies the substantive snow. It is therefore used as an 
adjective. 

117. Make a list of the prepositional phrases in the fol- 
lowing selections. If they are used as adjectives indicate 
the fact. 

". . . He set his teeth and said nothing, but went with the shouting 
monkeys to a terrace above the red sand-stone reservoirs that were 
half full of rain-water. There was a ruined summer-house of white 
marble in the center of the terrace, built for queens dead a hundred 
years ago. The domed roof had fallen in and blocked up the under- 
ground passage by which the queens used to enter; but the walls were 
made of screens of marble tracery — beautiful, milk-white fretwork, set 
with agates and cornelians and jasper and lapis lazuli, and as the moon 



51 



came up behind the hill it shone through the openwork, casting shadows 
on the ground ^ike black-velvet embroidery." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"I was now alone upon the ship; the tide had just turned. The 
sun was within so few degrees of setting that already the shadow of 
the pines upon the western shore began to reach right across the 
anchorage, and fall in patterns on the decks. The evening breeze had 
sprung up, and though it was well warded off by the hill with the two 
peaks upon the east, the cordage had begun to sing a little softly to 
itself and the idle sails to rattle to and fro. 

"I began to see a danger to the ship. 

"There was not a breath of air moving, nor a sound but that of the 
surf booming half a mile away along the beaches and against the rocks 
outside. A peculiar stagnant smell hung over the anchorage — a smell 
of sodden leaves and rotting tree trunks. 

"I had crossed a marshy tract full of willows, bulrushes, and odd, 
outlandish, swampy trees; and I had now come out upon the skirts 
of an open piece of undulating, sandy country, about a mile long, 
dotted with a few pines, and a great number of contorted trees, not 
unlike the oak in growth, but pale in the foliage, like willows. On the 
far side of the open stood one of the hills, with two quaint craggy peaks, 
shining vividly in the sun." 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 

ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES 

118. A clause is a part of a sentence which has a subject 
and a predicate. 

119. An adjectival clause is a clause which is used as an 
adjective. 

120. In the sentence, 3 "In merry England in the time of 
old, when good King Henry the Second ruled the land, there 
lived within the green glades of Sherwood Forest, near 

1 Like is not a preposition, but after it the preposition to or unto is always understood. 
In the sentence, 2 "And there was a rainbow round about the throne in sight like 

unto an emerald," emerald is the object of the preposition unto. 

If the sentence were "And there was a rainbow round about the throne which looked 
like an emerald," an emerald would still be a prepositional phrase with the preposition 
understood. 

2 Apocalypse iv. 3. 

3 Pyle, Robin Hood. 

52 



Nottingham Town, a famous outlaw whose name was Robin 
Hood." there are three clauses: (1) "In merry England in 
the time of old . . . there lived within the green glades of 
Sherwood Forest, near Nottingham Town, a famous outlaw" ; 

(2) "when good King Henry the Second ruled the land"; 

(3) "whose name was Robin Hood." 

What is the simple subject and the simple predicate of 
each clause? 

121. The clause, "when good King Henry the Second 
ruled the land," modifies the noun time just as, for instance, 
the article the and the prepositional phrase of old modify 
time. It is, like them, used as an adjective, and is called an 
adjectival clause. 

The clause, "whose name was Robin Hood," modifies the 
substantive outlaw; it is therefore an adjectival clause. 

122. A clause used as any part of speech is called a 
subordinate clause. 

123. Make a list of the clauses in the following selection. 
If they are used as adjectives indicate the fact. 

"I remember, I remember 

The house where I was born, 

The little window where the sun 

Came peeping in at morn." 

Hood, / Remember, I Remember. 

"Fountains that frisk and sprinkle 

The moss they overspill; 
Pools that the breezes crinkle; 

The wheel beside the mill, 

With its wet, weedy frill; 
Wind-shadows in the wheat; 
A water-cart in the street; 

The fringe of foam that girds 
An islet's ferneries; 

A green sky's minor thirds — 
To live, I think of these ! 

"Of ice and glass the tinkle, 
Pellucid, silver-shrill, 
53 



Peaches without a wrinkle; 

Cherries and snow at will 

From china bowls that fill 
The senses with a sweet 
Incuriousness of heat; 

A melon's dripping sherds; 
Cream-clotted strawberries ; 

Dusk dairies set with curds — 
To live, I think of these ! 

"Vale-lily and periwinkle; 

Wet stone-crop on the sill; 
The look of leaves a-twinkle 

With windlets clear and still; 

The feel of a forest rill 
That wimples fresh and fleet 
About one's naked feet ; 

The muzzles of drinking herds; 
Lush flags and bulrushes; 

The chirp of rain-bound birds — 
To live, I think of these ! 

"Envoy 

"Dark aisles, new packs of cards, 

Mermaidens' tails, cool swards. 

Dawn dews and starlit seas, 

White marbles, whiter words — 

To live, I think of these!" 

Henley, Made in Hot Weather. 

124. There is almost the same distinction between re- 
strictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses as there is 
between limiting and descriptive adjectives. From the fol- 
lowing selections make a list of restrictive adjective clauses 
and a list of non-restrictive adjective clauses. 

"Akela, the great gray Lone Wolf, who led all the pack by strength 
and cunning, lay out at full length on his rock, and below him sat 
forty or more wolves of every size and color, from badger-colored 
veterans who could handle a buck alone, to young black three-year-olds 
who thought they could." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"One day I discover a numerous troop making their way up and 
gradually reaching the favorite ledge. Slowly, in single file, the Cater- 

54 



pillars climb the great vase, mount the ledge, and advance in regular 
procession, while others are constantly arriving and continuing the 
series. I wait for the string to close up, that is to say, for the leader, 
who is following the circular track, to return to the point from which 
he started. This happens in a quarter of an hour. I now have a 
circle of Caterpillars around the top of the vase. 

"The next thing is to get rid of the rest of the Caterpillars who are 
on their way up and who might disturb the experiment; we must also 
do away with all the silken paths that lead from the top of the vase to 
the ground. With a thick hair-pencil I sweep away the Caterpillars; 
with a big brush I carefully rub down the vase and get rid of every 
thread which the Caterpillars have laid on the march. When these 
preparations are finished, a curious sight awaits us. 

"The Caterpillars are going round and round on the ledge at the 
top of the vase. They no longer have a leader, because the circle is 
continuous; but they do not know this, and each follows the one in 
front of him, who he thinks is the leader. 

"Old-fashioned scholars were fond of quoting the tale of the Donkey 
who, when placed between two bundles of hay, starved to death because 
he was unable to decide in favor of either. They slandered the worthy 
animal. The Donkey, who is no more foolish than anyone else, would 
feast off both bundles. Will my Caterpillars show a little of his common- 
sense?" Fabre, Insect Adventures. 

125. Observe the punctuation of the passages given above, 
then write a rule for the punctuation of restrictive and non- 
restrictive adjective clauses. Illustrate your rule by at least 
four original examples. 

CHAPTER V 
ADVERBS 

126. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb. 

127. Adverbs express : 

Time: then, soon, early, to-day, when, etc. 
Place: there, where, yonder, outside, etc. 
Manner: how, thus, beautifully, well, etc. 
Degree: so, very, the, much, etc. 
Number: twice, thrice, etc. 
Cause : why, wherefore, therefore, etc. 

Assertion and Negation: certainly, surely, yes, no, yea, nay, ay. 

55 



128. Write three sentences, one using an adverb to modify 
a verb, another an adjective, and another an adverb. 

129. Write sentences using at least one of each of the 
kinds of adverbs given above. Tell what verb, adjective, 
or other adverb it modifies. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 

130. Adverbs are compared like adjectives, but more 
often by adding more and most than by adding er and est. 
Many adverbs cannot be compared. 

131. There are some irregular adverbs such as: 
Positive Comparative Superlative 

well better best 

little less least 

much more most 

, J farther J farthest 

\ further \ furthest 

badly \ 

J > worse worst 

132. Make a list of the adverbs in the following selections. 
Compare each of them. 

"He prayeth best, who loveth best 
All things, both great and small." 

Coleridge, The Ancient Mariner. 

"I could not love thee, Dear, so much, 
Loved I not Honour more." 

Herrick, To Lucasta, on Going to the Wars. 

"And once more he shook his wings. They were stronger than 
formerly, and bore him forwards quickly, and before he was well aware 
of it he was in a large garden where the apple trees stood in full bloom, 
where the syringas sent forth their fragrance, and hung their long 
green branches down into the winding canal. Oh! everything was so 
lovely, so full of the freshness of spring ! And out of the thicket came 
three beautiful white swans. They displayed their feathers so proudly, 
and swam so lightly, so lightly! The Duckling knew the glorious 
creatures, and was seized with a strange melancholy. 

"... The syringas bent down their branches towards him low into 
the water, and the sun shone so warmly and brightly — he shook his 

56 



feathers, stretched his slender neck, and in the joy of his heart said, 
'How little did I dream of so much happiness when I was the ugly, 
despised Duckling!' " 

Andersen, The Ugly Duckling. 

133. An interrogative adverb is an adverb that introduces 
a question. 

" 'How did he get in?' roared Schwartz." 

Ruskin, King of the Golden River. 

"The journeymen were inquisitive where I had been, what sort of a 
country it was, and how I liked it." 

Franklin, Autobiography. 

134. A relative adverb is an adverb which introduces any 
subordinate clause that is not a question. 

" When Gluck found that Schwartz did not come back, he was very 
sorry, and did not know what to do." 

Ruskin, King of the Golden River. 

135. Observe that the clause a relative adverb introduces 
need not be an adverbial clause. The following sentence 
contains two adjectival clauses, each introduced by an 
adverb : 

"I remember, I remember 

The house where I was horn, 
The little window where the sun 
Came peeping in at morn . . ." . 

Hood, I Remember, I Remember. 

136. Write five sentences containing interrogative ad- 
verbs, five containing relative adverbs. 

137. What clause does each relative adverb in the follow- 
ing sentences introduce ? What word does the adverb modify 
in its clause? 

"He could not understand how this had happened. ..." 

Lagerlof, The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. 

"I spied where a rabbit was wont to pass, close down by the water's 
edge; where a rabbit could go a boy could follow. ..." 

Grahame, The Golden Age. 
•57 



"By the Law of the Jungle it is death to kill at the drinking-places 
when once the Water Truce has been declared. The reason of this is 
that drinking comes before eating. Everyone in the Jungle can 
scramble along somehow when only game is scarce; but water is water, 
and when there is but one source of supply, all hunting stops while the 
Jungle People go there for their needs. In good seasons, when water 
was plentiful, those who came down to drink at the Waingunga — or 
anywhere else, for that matter, did so at the risk of their lives, and 
that risk made no small part of the fascination of the night's doings." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 



138. 



FORM FOR PARSING ADVERBS 



Kind 



(a) 


adverb of: 




time 




place 




manner 




degree 




number 




cause 




assertion and negation 


(b) interrogative 


(c) 


relative 



[ positive 
Degree I comparative 

[ superlative 
Comparison 
Word which it modifies 

139. Parse the adverbs in the following selections. 

"There was nothing so very remarkable in that; nor did Alice think 
it so very much out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself 'Oh 
dear! Oh dear! I shall be too late!' (when she thought it over after- 
wards, it occurred to her that she ought to have wondered at this, 
but at the time it all seemed quite natural); but, when the Rabbit 
actually look a watch out of its waistcoat-pocket, and looked at it, and 
then hurried on, Alice started to her feet, for its flashed across her mind 
that she had never before seen a rabbit with either a waistcoat-pocket, 
or a watch to take out of it, and, burning with curiosity, she ran across 
the field after it and was just in time to see it pop down a large rabbit- 
hole under the hedge. 

"In another moment down went Alice after it, never once considering 
how in the world she was to get out again. 

"The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and 

58 



then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment 
to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down 
what seemed to be a very deep well. 

"Either the well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she had 
plenty of time as she went down to look about her, and to wonder what 
was going to happen next. First, she tried to look down and make out 
what she was coming to, but it was too dark to see anything; then 
she looked at the sides of the well, and noticed that they were filled 
with cupboards and book-shelves: here and there she saw maps and 
pictures hung upon pegs. She took down a jar from one of the shelves 
as she passed: ..." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

"On either side the river lie 
Long fields of barley and of rye, 
That clothe the wold and meet the sky; 
And through the fields the road runs by 

To many-towered Camelot; 
And up and down the people go, 
Gazing where the lilies blow 
Round an island there below, 
The island of Shalott. 



'Only reapers, reaping early 
In among the bearded barley, 
Hear a song that echoes cheerly, 
From the river winding clearly, 

Down to towered Camelot: 
And by the moon the reaper weary, 
Piling sheaves in uplands airy, 
Listening whispers ' 'Tis the fairy 

Lady of Shalott.' " 

Tennyson, The Lady of Shalott. 

"Tell me where is fancy bred, 
Or in the heart or in the head? 
How begot, how nourished? 

Reply, reply. 
It is engendered in the eyes, 
With gazing fed; and fancy dies 
In the cradle where it lies. 
Let us all ring fancy's knell: 
I'll begin it, — Ding, dong, bell." 

Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice. 

59 



PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES USED AS ADVERBS 

140. Make a list of the prepositional phrases in the fol- 
lowing selections. Tell what word each modifies and whether 
it is used as an adjective or an adverb. 

"Oh, young Lochinvar is come out of the west; 
Through all the wide border his steed was the best ; 
And save his good broad-sword he weapons had none; 
He rode all unarmed and he rode all alone. 
So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, 
There never was knight like the young Lochinvar." 

Scott, Lochinvar. 

"A thousand spurs are striking deep, a thousand spears in rest, 
A thousand knights are pressing close behind the snow-white crest; 
And in they burst, and on they rushed, while, like a guiding star, 
Amidst the thickest carnage blazed the helmet of Navarre." 

Macaulay, Ivry. 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 

141. Write a definition of an adverbial clause. 

142. Make a list of the clauses in the following selections. 
Indicate what word each modifies and which are used as 
adjectives and which as adverbs. 

"Then the branches closed over his head again, and Kala Nag began 
to go down into the valley — not quietly this time, but as a runaway 
gun goes down a steep bank — in one rush." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"It was the time when lilies blow 
And clouds are highest up in air." 

Tennyson, Lady Clare. 

"Here was square keep, there turret high, 
And pinnacles that sought the sky, 
Whence oft the warder could descry 
The gathering ocean-storm." 

Scott, Marmion. 

"The stag at eve had drunk his fill, 
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill — " 

Scott, The Lady of the Lake. 
60 



"Don't you wait where trees are, 
When the lightnings play; 
Nor don't you hate where Bees are, 
Or else they'll pine away, 

Pine away — dwine away — 
Anything to leave you! 
But if you never grieve your Bees, 
Your Bees'll never grieve you." 

Kipling, Puck of Pook's Hill. 

" 'Better he should be bruised from head to foot by me who love 
him than that he should come to harm through ignorance,' Baloo 
answered, very earnestly." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"Faint with her exertions, which had been unusually severe for so 
slight a frame, she sank on a rock, to recover her strength and fortitude 
for the approaching interview. A few moments sufficed for this pur- 
pose, when she proceeded in quest of the hut. All of the neighboring 
hills were distinctly visible by the aid of the moon, and Frances was 
able, where she stood, to trace the route of the highway from the 
plains into the mountains. By following this line with her eyes, she soon 
discovered the point whence she had seen the mysterious dwelling, and 
directly opposite to that point where she well knew the hut must stand. 

"The chilling air sighed through the leafless branches of the gnarled 
and crooked oaks, as, with a step so light as hardly to rustle the dry 
leaves on which she trod, Frances moved forward to that part of the 
hill where she expected to find this secluded habitation; but nothing 
could she discern that in the least resembled a dwelling of any sort. 
In vain she examined every recess of the rocks, or inquisitively explored 
every part of the summit that she thought could hold the tenement of 
the peddler. No hut, not any vestige of a human being, could she 
trace. The idea of her solitude struck on the terrified mind of the 
affrighted girl, and, approaching to the edge of a shelving rock, she 
bent forward to gaze on the signs of life in the vale, when a ray of 
keen light dazzled her eyes, and a warm air diffused itself over her 
whole frame. Recovering from her surprise, Frances looked on the 
ledge beneath her, and at once perceived that she stood directly over 
the object of her search. A hole through its roof afforded a passage 
to the smoke, which, as it blew aside, showed her a clear and cheerful 
fire crackling and snapping on a rude hearth of stone. The approach 
to the front of the hut was by a winding path around the point of the 
rock on which she stood, and by this she advanced to its door." 

Cooper, The Spy. 
61 



CHAPTER VI 
NOUNS (Continued) 
143. THE NOMINATIVE CASE 

(1) The Subject of a Sentence. 

The cat's name is Pershing. 

(2) Nominative of Address. It is the name of a person or thing 
addressed. 

''Stately, kindly, lordly frien d, 
Condescend, 
Here to sit by me." 

Swinburne, To a Cat. 

Punctuation: A nominative of address with its modifiers is set off 
from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

(3) Nominative of Exclamation. It is a substantive used as an 
exclamation. 

"A toryl a toryl a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away with him!" 

Irving, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. 

Punctuation: A nominative of exclamation with its modifiers is 
followed by an exclamation point. 

A nominative of exclamation must be carefully distinguished from 
an interjection. 

An ^terjection is a word which is used to express a feeling 
or to call the attention of someone. It is not the name of 
any person, place, or thing. 

Some of the interjections are the following: hurrah, ho, oh, o, well, 
pshaw, ah, alas, hey, lo, hullo, bah, hail, ay. 

Observe that a phrase used as an exclamation is neither a nominative 
of exclamation nor an interjection. 

(4) Predicate Nominative. It is a substantive which explains the 
subject of the sentence. 

The cat's name is Pershing. 

(5) Nominative in Opposition. It is any substantive not used as a 
predicate nominative used to explain another substantive in the nomi- 
native case. 



1 Look up in the dictionary the derivation of interjection. Can you explain why 
this kind of word is called an interjection? 

2 Compare the meaning of the words apposition and opposition. What is the deri- 
vation of each? 

62 



"Leodogran, the King of Cameliard, had one fair daughter, 
Had one fair daughter, and none other child; 
And she was fairest of all flesh on earth, 
Guinivere, and in her his one delight." 

Tennyson, Idylls of the King. 

Punctuation : A word in apposition with its modifiers is set off from 
the rest of the sentence by commas unless the connection is very close. 

(6) Nominative Absolute. It is a noun independent of the rest of 
the sentence and used with a participle expressed or understood. 

"Behind them and before them stretched the river, its placid bosom 
ruffled here and there by the purple dusk of a small breeze. Sweet 
green osiers bordered the banks, and far away the red-tiled eaves of 
some tall tower glimmered in the sun, the weather-vane a spark against 
the blue sky." 

Pyle, Robin Hood. 

With weather-vane the participle being is understood* 

144. Give the use of each substantive in the nominative 
case in the following selections : 

"Oh, Amos Cottle! Phoebus! what a name!" 

Byron, English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. 

"This was one of the children's most secret hunting-grounds, and 
their particular friend, old Hobden the hedger, had shown them how 
to use it." 

Kipling, Puck of Pook's Hill. 

"O grim-look 'd night! O night with hue so black! 
O night, which ever art when day is not ! 
O night! O night! alack, alack, alack! 

Shakespeare, Midsummer Night's Dream. 

"Sister Anne, sister Anne, do you see anyone coming?" 

Arabian Nights. 

"I'm older than you, and must know better." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

"The place was entirely land-locked, buried in woods, the trees 
coming right down to high-water mark, the shores mostly flat, and 
the hill tops standing round at a distance in a sort of amphitheatre, 
one here, one there." 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 
63 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE 

145. Rules for forming the possessive of nouns. 

(1) To form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe 
and then an 5 to the noun. The possessive of man is man's, the 
possessive of Dickens is Dickens's. 

The s is sometimes omitted so that a succession of hissing sounds 
may be avoided; for instance, one says the princess 1 sister, not the 
princess's sister. 

(2) To form the possessive of a plural noun which does not end in s, 
add an apostrophe and then an 5 to the plural. The possessive of men 
is men's. 

(3) To form the possessive of a plural noun which ends in s, add an 
apostrophe only. The possessive of girls is girls'. 

146. Use the possessive case both singular and plural of 
the following words. in sentences: 

goodness 

Duke of Brunswick 
sister-in-law- 
King of England 
Strawbridge and Clothier 

ssession, or it may denote 
some other relation. For instance, in the phrase the Duke of Gloucester's 
death, the possessive case does not indicate possession. For this reason 
this case is sometimes called the genitive case. It would correspond 
exactly to the Latin genitive if it were not for the fact that the Latin 
genitive is often translated into English by a prepositional phrase. 

148. As a rule, though there are many exceptions, avoid using the 
possessive case of a noun naming a thing; use instead a phrase intro- 
duced by of; for instance, write instead of the tree's branches, the branches 
of the tree; instead of the book's author, the author of the book. 

149. USES OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE 

(1) Simple possessive. It is a substantive modifying another sub- 
stantive, expressed or understood. 

"The chief's eye flashed; but presently 
Softened itself, as sheathes 
A film the mother-eagle' s eye 

When her bruised eaglet breathes." 

Browning, Incident of the French Camp. 
64 



woman 


wife 


Charles 


lady 


Adams 


German 


friend 


lily 


Frenchman 


mother 


girl 


nation 


goose 


Patrick Henry 


merchant 


147. 


The possessive case 


may denote 



(2) Possessive in apposition. 

"The last time I saw the Fountain in Trevi, it was from Arthur's 
father's room — Joseph Severn's ." Ruskin, Praeierita. 

THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 

150. A transitive verb is a verb that can be used in the 
passive voice. In the sentence, "The rats frightened the 
babies," you know that frightened is a transitive verb because 
it can be used in the passive voice; you can say, "The babies 
were frightened by the rats." 

When the verb is used in the passive voice the action it 
expresses is performed not by the person or thing named by 
the subject, but on the person or thing named by the subject. 
When the sentence reads, "The babies were frightened by 
the rats," the action of frightening is performed not by the 
babies, but on the babies. 

When the verb is used in the active voice the action is 
performed by the person or thing named by the subject, on 
a person or thing named by part of the complete predicate 
called the complete object. The complete object consists of 
a substantive and its modifiers. In the sentence, "The rats 
frightened. the babies," the babies is the complete object of 
the verb; babies is the simple object. 

(1) The object of the verb. 

The rats frightened the babies. 

(2) T The indirect object. It is the name of the person, place or 
thing to or for whom the action of the verb is performed. 

" '. . . Stand still, Little Brother, lest thy feet do us harm.' " 
(2) The object of a preposition. 

" 'A cat may look at a king,' said Alice." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

(4) The adjunct. It shows the effect the action of the verb has on 
the object. It is used only with the active voice of the verbs which 
are linking when used in the passive. 

" 'He who makes himself Emperor anywhere must know everything, 
everywhere,' said Parnesius." 

Kipling, Puck of Pook's Hill. 

i The Dative. 

65 



(5) Accusative in apposition. It is a substantive used to explain 
another substantive in the accusative case. 

" 'What!' replied the servant, 'are you an inhabitant of Bagdad and 
do not know that this is the residence of Sindbad the Sailor, that 
famous voyager who has sailed over every sea under the sun?' " 

Arabian Nights. 

(6) Adverbial accusative. It is a noun used to express an adverbial 
idea. 

"King Francis was a hearty king, and loved a royal sport, 
And one day as his lions fought, sat looking on the court." 

Hunt, The Glove and the Lions. 

(7) Subject of an infinitive. 

"It would have made a Stoic smile to see me and my little family 
sit down to dinner." 

Defoe, Robinson Crusoe. 

(8) Predicate accusative. It is a substantive used after a linking 
verb if the subject of the linking verb is in the accusative case. 

"Let us be sacrificers, but not butchers." 

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar. 

(9) Cognate accusative. It is a substantive which repeats the idea 
of certain complete intransitive verbs. 

"They that have done this deed are honorable." 

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar. 

(10) Retained object. It is the direct object of a transitive verb 
used as though it were the object of the same verb in the passive. It 
is used only with verbs which may take an indirect object. 

"She had fallen into good hands, known nothing but kindness from 
the Campbells, and had been given an excellent education" 

Austen, Emma. 

151. Give the use of each substantive in the accusative 

case in the following selections : 

" 'Therefore I know ye to be cowards, and it is to cowards I speak.' " 
"The monkeys called the place their city, and pretended to despise 

the Jungle People because they lived in the forest." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"I saw Mark Antony offer him a crown." 

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar. 

66 



"Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, 
Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking." 

Scott, Lady of the Lake. 

"I can write very like my lady your niece . . . ." 

Shakespeare, Twelfth Night. 

"Kala Nag swashed out of the water, blew his trunk clear, and 
began another climb; but this time he was not alone, and he had not 
to make his path. That was made already, six feet wide, in front of 
him, where the bent jungle-grass was trying to recover itself and 
stand up. Many elephants must have gone that way only a few 
minutes before. Little Toomai looked back, and behind him a great 
wild tusker with his little pig's eyes glowing like hot coals, was just 
lifting himself out of the misty river. Then the trees closed up again, 
and they went on and up, with trumpetings and crashings, and the 
sound of breaking branches on every side of them." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 



152. 



(1) Kind 



FORM FOR PARSING NOUNS 



(a) 



common 
proper 



(b) 



collective 
abstract 



verbal 



[first 
(3) Person I second 
[ third 

(masculine 
feminine 
neuter 



(5) Case 



nominative 

possessive 

accusative 



67 



(6) Use 



nominative 



possessive 



accusative 



1 subject of 

2 nominative of address 

3 nominative of exclamation 

4 predicate nominative after 

5 in apposition with 

6 nominative absolute with the participle 

1 modifying 

2 in apposition with 



1 object of the verb 

2 indirect object of the verb 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



object of the preposition 
adjunct 

in apposition with 

adverbial 

subject of the infinitive - 



predicate accusative after the verb 
cognate accusative with the verb — 



10 retained object of the verb 



VERBAL NOUNS 

153. A verbal noun is a word which is part verb and part 
noun. It is the same as a participle in form but not in use. 

154. A verbal noun must be parsed as both noun and 
verb. Make a list of the participles and a list of the verbal 
nouns in the following selections. Parse the verbal nouns. 

"Mowgli stood as quietly as he could, peering through the openwork 
and listening to the furious din of the fight round the Black Panther — 
the yells and chatterings and scufBings, and Bagheera's deep, hoarse 
cough as he backed and bucked and twisted and plunged under the 
heaps of his enemies. ..." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

". . . It is a pleasant place, where my whole family like to go in 
the mild days of autumn. They find everything there: old Magpies' 
nests, made of bundles of twigs; Jays squabbling with each other, 
after filling their crops with acorns on the oaks hard by; Rabbits 
suddenly starting out of a rosemary bush, showing their little white 
upturned tails. There is lovely sand for the children to dig tunnels 
in, sand that is easy to build into rows of huts which we thatch with 

68 



moss and top with a bit of reed by way of a chimney. And when we 
are there we lunch off an apple to the sound of the Aeolian harps of 
the breezes softly sighing through the pine-needles." 

Fabre, Insect Adventures. 

"And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain 
Thrilled me — filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before; 
So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating : 
' 'Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door, 
Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door: 
This it is and nothing more.' 

"Presently my soul grew stronger; hesitating then no longer, 
'Sir,' said I, 'or Madam, truly your forgiveness I implore; 
But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping, 
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door, 
That I scarce was sure I heard you ' — here I opened wide the door : — 
Darkness there and nothing more. 

"Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, 
Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before; 
But the silence was unbroken, and the stillness gave no token, 
And the only word there spoken was the whispered word, 'Lenore!' 
This I whispered, and an echo murmured back the word, 'Lenore:' 
Merely this and nothing more. 

"Back into the chamber turning, all my soul within me burning, 
Soon again I heard a tapping somewhat louder than before. 
'Surely,' said I, 'surely that is something at my window lattice; 
Let me see, then, what thereat is, and this mystery explore; 
Let my heart be still a moment and this mystery explore : 
' 'Tis the wind and nothing more.' " 

Poe, The Raven. 

155. Some verbal nouns have a subject. The subject of 
a verbal noun is in the possessive case. 

"I discovered this by his being out on the second or third evening 
of our visit, and by Mrs. Gummidge's looking up at the Dutch clock, 
between eight and nine, and saying he was there." 

Dickens, David Copperfield. 

156. Parse the nouns in the following selections : 

"The place grew thicker and thicker, and the covert grew darker 
above me, until I thought that the fishes might have good chance of 
eating me, instead of my eating the fishes." 

Blackmore, Lorna Doone. 
69 



"Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears." 

"Many a time and oft 
Have you climbed up to walls and battlements, 
Your infants in your arms, and there have sat 
The livelong day." 

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar. 

"Now the turnpike gate again flew open in short space, 
The tollman thinking, as before, that Gilpin rode a race." 

Cowper, The Diverting History of John Gilpin. 

"Not ever yet had Arthur fought a fight 
Like this last, dim, weird battle of the West." 

Tennyson, Idylls of the King. 

"Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the Basin of Minas, 
Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand Pre, 
Dwelt on his goodly acres; and with him, directing his household, 
Gentle Evangeline lived, his child, and the pride of the village. 
Stately and stalwart of form was the man of seventy winters ; 
Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with snow-flakes." 

Longfellow, Evangeline. 

" 'I'm not a serpent!' said Alice indignantly." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

"Old Mother Hubbard went to her cupboard 
To get her poor dog a bone." 

Mother Goose. 

" 'He may even require thee to be an elephant-catcher, to sleep 
anywhere in these fever-filled jungles, and at last to be trampled to 
death in the Keddah.' " 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"I saw you toss the kites on high 
And blow the birds about the sky: 
And all around I heard you pass, 
Like ladies' skirts across the grass — 
O wind, a-blowing all day long, 
O wind, that sings so loud a song!" 

Stevenson, The Wind. 

70 



"On the king's gate the moss grew grey; 

The king came not. They called him dead; 
And made his eldest son one day 
Slave in his father's stead." 

H. H., Coronation. 
His eldest son was made slave. 

"April, April, 
Laugh thy girlish laughter; 
Then the moment after, 
Weep thy girlish tears!" 

Watson, Song of Spring. 

"The river Rhine, it is well known, 
Doth wash your city of Cologne; 
But tell me, nymphs ! what power divine 
Shall henceforth wash the river Rhine?" 

Coleridge, Cologne. 

" 'Justice! the law! my ducats, and my daughter!' " 

Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice. 

"For there be women, fair as she, 
Whose verbs and nouns do more agree." 

Bret Harte, Mrs. Judge Jenkins. 

"And now they could see the Sirens, on Aramethousa, the flowery 
isle; three fair maidens sitting on the beach, beneath a red rock in 
the setting sun, among beds of crimson poppies and golden asphodel; 
slowly they sung, and sleepily, with silver voices mild and clear, which 
stole over the golden waters, and into the hearts of all the heroes, in 
spite of Orpheus' song. And as they listened, the oars fell from their 
hands, and their heads drooped on their breasts, and they closed their 
heavy eyes; and they dreamed of bright still gardens, and of slumbers 
under murmuring pines, till all their toil seemed foolishness, and they 
thought of their renown no more." 

Kingsley, Greek Heroes. 

"And last of all an Admiral came, 
A terrible man with a terrible name, — ■ 
A name which you all know by sight very well, 
But which no one can speak, and no one can spell." 

Southey, The March to Moscow. 

"After they had travelled some distance, the day being warm and 
the road dusty, Robin Hood waxed thirsty; so there being a fountain 
of water as cold as ice, just behind the hedgerow, they crossed the 

71 



stile and came to where the water bubbled up from beneath a mossy- 
stone. Here, kneeling and making cups of the palms of their hands, 
they drank their fill, and then, the spot being cool and shady, they 
stretched their limbs and rested them for a space." 

Pyle, Robin Hood. 

INFINITIVES 

157. Infinitives are used in other ways than as (l) com- 
plementary infinitives. They are used as (2) substantives, 
(3) adjectives, and (4) adverbs. 

(1) Complementary. 

" 'We must have a bit of a fight, but I don't care about going on 
long,' said Tweedledum." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

(2) Substantive. 

"The boy didn't move, but pretended to be asleep." 

Lagerlof, The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. 

An infinitive used with a subject accusative, modifiers, 
object, or predicate objective is called an infinitive phrase. 

"He was pottering about the house one afternoon, having ordered 
me to keep at his heels for company ..." 

Grahame, The Golden Age. 

(3) Adjectival. 

"Naturally there was a great deal of excitement and bustle in the 
kitchen, and probably no one there took time to think about the squirrel 
or to wonder how she was getting on." 

Lagerlof, The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. 

158. Parse to think' and to wonder (1) as a verb, (2) as an 
adjective. 

(4) Adveibial. 

"I'll drop my glove, to prove his love." 

Hunt, The Glove and the Lions. 

"There is such a thing as a man being too proud to fight." 

Wilson. 

159. Parse to prove and to fight (1) as a verb, (2) as an 
adverb. 

160. Write sentences using infinitives at least once in each 
of the four ways. 

72 



161. Make a list of the infinitives in the following selec- 
tions. Give the uses of each. If it is complementary tell 
what word it completes; if substantive, its case and use as 
a substantive ; if adjectival, the word it modifies ; if adverbial, 
the word it modifies. 

"A squirrel appeared suddenly on the charred ground, looked doubt- 
fully at Gavin to see if he was growing there, and then glided up a 
tree, where it sat eyeing him, and forgetting to conceal its shadow." 

Barrie, The Little Minister. 

" 'Hello!' said the little gentleman, 'that's not the way to answer 
the door. I'm wet, let me in.' " 

Ruskin, King of the Golden River. 

"To move down so cunningly that never a leaf stirred; to wade 
knee-deep in the roaring shallows that drown all noise from behind; 
to drink, looking backward over one shoulder, every muscle ready for 
the first desperate bound of keen terror; to roll on the sandy margin, 
and return, wet-muzzled and well plumped out, to the admiring herd, 
was a thing that all tall-antlered young bucks took a delight in, pre- 
cisely because they knew that at any moment Bagheera or Shere Khan 

might leap upon them and bear them down ." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"The dawn was beginning to break when Mowgli went down the 
hillside alone to the crops to meet those mysterious things that are 
called men." 

" 'Is there anything in the jungle too little to be killed?' " 

" 'It is not my custom to suffer my cubs to be driven to and fro like 
jackals.' " 

"The first thing Mowgli did, when the disorderly Pack had slunk 
off, was to go to the home-cave, and sleep for a day and a night." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"A Christmas gambol oft could cheer 
The poor man's heart through half the year." 

Scott, Marmion. 

"... He never said, 'I told you so,' or 'Just what I always said,' 
or remarked that they ought to have done so-and-so, or ought not to 
have done something else. 

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 

162. Write a definition of a substantive clause. 

163. Write a list of the substantive clauses in the following 

73 



selections. Tell how each is used; that is, whether it is used 
as the subject of the verb, the predicate nominative, the 
object of a preposition, etc. 

"What puzzled David most was how she knew where the matches 
were kept." 

Barrie, The Little White Bird. 

" 'Tell us a story,' said the March Hare." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

"It often comes about in this world that unlucky happenings fall 
upon one in such measure that it seems, as the saying is, that every 
cat one strokes flies in one's face." 

Pyle, Robin Hood. 

"My aunt's handmaid, as I supposed she was from what she had 
said, put her rice in a little basket and walked out of the shop telling 
me that I could follow her, if I wanted to know where Miss Trotwood 
lived." 

Dickens, David Copperfield. 

"They asked what they liked, and got it, except from the poor 
people, who could only beg, and several of whom were starved at their 
very door, without the slightest regard or notice." 

"... His cheeks were very round and red, and might have war- 
ranted a supposition that he had been blowing a refractory fire for the 
last eight-and-forty hours. ..." 

"But two slight circumstances affected their trade: the first, that 
people did not approve of the coppered gold; the second, that the 
two elder brothers, whenever they had sold anything, used to leave 
little Gluck to mind the furnace, and go and drink out the money in 
the ale-house next door." 

Ruskin, King of the Golden River. 

"The mountains look on Marathon, 
And Marathon looks on the sea; 
And musing there an hour alone, 

I dreamed that Greece might still be free." 

Byron, Don Juan. 

"The next day happened to be what they called a Wild Afternoon." 

Kipling, Puck of Pook's Hill. 
74 



"... Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself 
before she found herself falling down what seemed to be a very deep 
well. 

"Alice was a little alarmed at what she had done. ..." 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

"... But Mowgli, as a man-cub, had to learn a great deal more 
than this. Sometimes Bagheera, the Black Panther, would come 
lounging through the jungle to see how his pet was getting on, and 
would purr with his head against a tree while Mowgli recited the day's 
lesson to Baloo. The boy could climb almost as well as he could 
swim, and swim almost as well as he could run; so Baloo, the Teacher 
of the Law, taught him the Wood and Water laws: how to tell a 
rotten branch from a sound one; how to speak politely to the wild 
bees when he came upon a hive of them fifty feet above ground; what 
to say to Mang, the Bat, when he disturbed him in the branches at 
midday; and how to warn the water-snakes in the pools before he 
splashed down among them." 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

CHAPTER VII 
PRONOUNS 

164. There are five kinds of pronouns : personal, demon- 
strative, relative, interrogative, indefinite. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

165. The personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, and it. 
They are called personal pronouns because there is a different 
pronoun for each person. 

166. Some pronouns, unlike nouns, differ in form in the 
nominative and accusative cases; some form the possessive 
case irregularly. 

The declension of the personal pronouns is as follows : 

Singular Number Plural Number 

Nominative case: I we 

Possessive case: my, mine our, ours 

Accusative case: me us 

Nominative case: you you 

Possessive case: your, yours your, yours 

Accusative case: you you 

75 



Nominative case: 


he 




Possessive case: 


his 




Accusative case: 


him 




Nominative case: 


she 


they 


Possessive case: 


her, hers 


> their, theirs 


Accusative case: 


her 


them 


Nominative case: 


it 




Possessive case: 


its 




Accusative case: 


it 





COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

167. Compound personal pronouns are pronouns formed 
by adding self to some form of one of the personal pronouns. 

168. What is the compound personal pronoun in the 
first person singular, in the third person plural? 

169. Compound personal pronouns are used in apposition 
with some other substantive in a sentence for emphasis ; that 
is, intensively: and they are used as the object of a verb or 
of a preposition for reference to the subject of the clause in 
which it stands; that is, reflexively. There is no other way 
in which they may be correctly used. 

In the sentence, v ' 'I'm afraid I can't put it more clearly,' 
Alice replied very politely, 'for I can't understand it myself 
to begin with . . . ,' " myself is intensive. 

In the sentence, 1<< 'I can't explain myself, I'm afraid, sir,' 
said Alice, 'because I'm not myself, you see,' " myself is 
reflexive. 

170. Is the compound personal pronoun used correctly 
in the following sentences ? Give reasons for your answer. 

"Then Little Toomai laid himself down close to the great neck, lest 
a swinging bough should sweep him to the ground, and he wished that 
he were back in the lines again." 

"First, he himself ate a bit of bread which he found in the cabin; 
then he gave morning feed to both geese and cow, and opened the 
cow-house door so that the cow could go over to the nearest farm." 

After all, the best part of a holiday is perhaps not so much to be 
resting yourself, as to see all the other fellows busy working. 

1 Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

76 



Explain yourself. 

Aunt Mary asked Jane and myself to take a walk with her. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 

171. The demonstrative pronouns are this and that. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

172. The interrogative pronouns are who, which and what. 
An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun which introduces a 
question. 

173. Who is declined as follows : 

Singular and Plural Numbers 
Nominative case: who 

Possessive case: whose 

Accusative case: whom 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

174. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that. A relative pronoun is a pronoun which introduces any 
subordinate clause that is not a question. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 

175. Some of the indefinite pronouns are the following: 
either, neither, Jew, many, much, several, all, none, one, both, 
some, any, other, another, such, each. 

176. Pronouns must be distinguished carefully from pro- 
nominal adjectives, like pronouns in form, but different in 
use. 

177. Make two lists from the following selection, one of 
pronouns, the other of pronominal adjectives. Tell what 
kind of pronoun or adjective each is. 

"When Solomon was reigning in his glory, 

Unto his throne the Queen of Sheba came — 

(So in the Talmud you may read the story) — 
Drawn by the magic of the monarch's fame, 

To see the splendors of his court, and bring 

Some fitting tribute to the mighty King. 

1 Look up demonstrative in the dictionary. 

77 



"Nor this alone: much had her highness heard 

What flowers of learning graced the royal speech; 
What gems of wisdom dropped with every word; 
What wholesome lessons he was wont to teach 
In pleasing proverbs; and she wished, in sooth, 
To know if Rumor spoke the simple truth. 

" Besides, the Queen had heard (which piqued her most) 
How through the deepest riddles he could spy; 

How all the curious arts that women boast 
Were quite transparent to his piercing eye; 

And so the Queen had come — a royal guest — 

To put the sage's cunning to the test. 

"And straight she held before the monarch's view, 
In either hand, a radiant wreath of flowers; 

The one bedecked with every charming hue, 

Was newly culled from Nature's choicest bowers; 

The other, no less fair in every part, 

Was the rare product of divinest Art. 

" 'Which is the true, and which the false?' she said. 

Great Solomon was silent. All amazed, 
Each wondering courtier shook his puzzled head; 

While at the garlands long the monarch gazed, 
As one who sees a miracle, and fain 
For very rapture, ne'er would speak again. 

" 'Which is the true?' once more the woman asked, 
Pleased at the fond amazement of the King; 
' So wise a head should not be hardly tasked, 

Most learned Liege, with such a trivial thing!' 
But still the sage was silent; it was plain 
A deepening doubt perplexed the royal brain. 

"While thus he pondered, presently he sees, 
Hard by the casement — so the story goes— 
A little band of busy bustling bees, 

Hunting for honey in a withered rose. 
The monarch smiled, and raised his royal head; 
'Open the window!' — that was all he said. 



78 



"The window opened at the King's command; 

Within the rooms the eager insects flew, 
And sought the flowers in Sheba's dexter hand! 

And so the King and all the courtiers knew 
That wreath was Nature's; and the baffled Queen 
Returned to tell the wonders she had seen. 

"My story teaches (every tale should bear 
A fitting moral) that the wise may find 
In trifles light as atoms of the air 

Some useful lesson to enrich the mind — 
Some truth designed to profit or to please — 
As Israel's King learned wisdom from the bees." 

Saxe, Solomon and the Bees. 

178. A pronoun agrees with the noun for which it stands 
(called its antecedent) in number and person. 

The case of the antecedent never affects the case of the 
pronoun. 

179. Fill in each blank in the following sentences with a 
pronoun. Give the case of each pronoun and its use in the 
sentence. 

1. (Who, whom) shall I lodge in my glass trough? 

2. "O man! thou must have known," he said, 
"A greater king than (I, me, myself)." 

3. Do you remember Hop-o'-My-Thumb, who hid under the wood- 
cutter's stool and listened to his parents overcome by want? I was 
like (he, him). 

4. (Who, whom) is it this time? 

It's (I, me). 

5. "You're asleep!" 

"Not (I, me)," said John, waking with a jerk. 

6. The front-door bell clanged loudly, and the Rat, who was very 
greasy with buttered toast, sent Billy, the smaller hedgeling, to see 
(who, whom) it might be. 

7. Could this be really (he, him)? 

8. This must always be a secret kept between (you, yourself) 

and (I, me, myself). 

9. Mary and (we, us) are going for a walk. 

10. We all went, John, James, and (I, me, myself). 

11. She sat between Mary and (I, me). 

79 



12. To treat me so harshly, (I, me) who had never harmed 

her. 

13. It isn't manners for (us, we) to begin. 

14. Give it to (whoever, whomever) you think would like it. 

15. Give it to — (whoever, whomever) you meet first. 

1 6. Is she taller than (he, him) ? 

17. She is as tall as (he, him). 

18. They knew the thief to be (he, him) as soon as they 

saw him. 

19. They knew (he, him) to be the thief as soon as they 

saw him . 

20. No one failing in (his, their) first can succeed in a second 

attempt; and if anyone shall cast unholy water into the river, it will 
overwhelm (him, them). 

21. I'm older than (he, him), and must know better. 

22. " (Who, whom) is it directed to?" said one of the jurymen. 

23. "Not like cats!" cried the Mouse in a shrill, passionate voice. 
"Would you like cats, if you were (I, me)?" 



CHAPTER VIII 
CONJUNCTIONS 

180. A preposition shows the relation between a sub- 
stantive and some other word in the sentence. 

In the sentence, "The day before the storm was beautiful," 
before shows the relation between day and storm; that is, it 
shows the particular importance the storm had in connection 
with the day. 

If the sentence is, "The day and the storm were beautiful," 
storm is not dependent for its importance on day; it is of 
equal importance with day. The two words are connected 
by and, a co-ordinating conjunction. 

181. A ^o-ordinating conjunction is a word which con- 
nects words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank. 

In the sentence, "The day and the storm were beautiful," 
the co-ordinating conjunction and connects the words day 
and storm. 



Look up co-ordinating in the dictionary. 

80 



In the sentence, ^'Give me Liberty or give me death," or 
connects independent clauses (you) give me Liberty and (you) 
give me death. 

In the sentence, 2 "Thus it had sounded while the first 
showers fell, and when all were still, glad of the rain," and 
connects the subordinate clauses, while the first showers fell 
and when all were still, glad of the rain. 

In the sentence, 3 " 'Give me leave to hunt here because I 
am hungry' and the answer is: 'Hunt, then, for food, but 
not for pleasure,' " but connects the phrases for food and for 
pleasure. 

182. Is the use of the co-ordinating conjunction in the 
following sentence correct? 

"They found a path broad and smooth and which led straight to 
the pond." 

183. Make a list of the co-ordinating conjunctions in the 
following selection: 

" 'Come in!' the Mayor cried, looking bigger, 
And in did come the strangest figure! 
His queer long coat, from heel to head 
Was half of yellow and half of red ; 
And he himself was tall and thin, 
With sharp blue eyes, each like a pin, 
And light loose hair, yet swarthy chin, 
No tuft on cheek nor beard on chin, 
But lips where smiles went out and in; 
There was no guessing his kith and kin; 
And nobody could enough admire 
The tall man and his quaint attire." 

Browning, The Pied Piper of Hamelin. 

184. In the sentence, "The day before the storm was 
beautiful," the phrase before the storm modifies day. 

If the sentence is "The day before the storm broke was 
beautiful," the clause before the storm broke modifies day; 
that is, it is in the same relation to day that before the storm 

1 Patrick Henry. 

2 Lagerlof , The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. 

3 Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

81 



is, but it is a clause, not a phrase. The phrase is introduced 
by the preposition before, the clause by the subordinating 
conjunction before. 

A subordinate clause is a clause which is used as an 
adjective, an adverb, or a substantive. A subordinating con- 
junction is a conjunction which introduces a subordinate clause. 

In the sentence, ''The day before the storm broke was 
beautiful," before the storm broke is used as an adjective. 

In the sentence, ^'Sometimes a mother would push her 
cub far out into the moonlight, to be sure that he had not 
been overlooked," that he had not been overlooked is used as 
an adverb. 

In the sentence, 2 "Then it happened that little Gerda 
stepped through the great gate into the wide hall," that little 
Gerda stepped through the great gate into the wide hall is used 
as a substantive. 

185. What constructions other than clauses could you 
use to subordinate the ideas expressed by clauses in the 
sentences given above? Rewrite the sentences in as many 
ways as you can without changing the thought. 

CORRELATIVES 

186. Correlatives are words used in pairs, either or both 
of which is a conjunction. 

". . . I'll be as silent as the grave." 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 

187. Correlatives should be placed immediately before 
the words, phrases, or clauses they are intended to connect. 

Is the following sentence correct? 

"They had not looked around for either the goosey-gander or for his 
rider, but had made straight for the water." 

188. Use the following correlatives in sentences : 

Either — or (conjunctions); neither — nor (conjunctions); not (adverb) 
— nor (conjunction); not (adverb) — but (conjunction); both — and (con- 
junctions); as (adverb) — as (conjunction). 

1 Kipling, The Jungle Book. 
J Andersen, Fairy Tales. 

82 



189. Which of the ideas in the following selection should 
be made co-ordinate and which subordinate? Have the 
right ideas been co-ordinated and subordinated by the struc- 
ture of the sentences as they are? Rewrite the selection 
with the object of making the point of the story clearer. 

"Next comes St. Govor's Well, which was full of water when Mal- 
colm the Bold fell into it. He was his mother's favourite, and he let 
her put her arm round his neck in public because she was a widow, 
but he was also partial to adventures and liked to play with a chimney- 
sweep who had killed a good many bears. The sweep's name was 
Sooty, and one day when they were playing near the well, Malcolm 
fell in and would have been drowned had not Sooty dived in and 
rescued him, and the water had washed Sooty clean and he now stood 
revealed as Malcolm's long-lost father. So Malcolm would not let his 
mother put her arm round his neck any more." 

Barrie, The Little White Bird. 

CHAPTER IX 
CLAUSES 

190. A clause is a part of a sentence which contains a 
subject and a predicate; that is, it expresses an idea which 
has, of course, some relation to the other ideas expressed by 
the sentence. 

CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES 

191. Clauses which express ideas of equal importance are 
co-ordinate clauses. 

In the sentence: 

"The long light shakes across the lakes 
And the wild cataract leaps in glory," 
and connects two co-ordinate clauses. 

192. The commonest co-ordinating conjunctions are: and, but, or, 
nor, also, as well as, yet, however, nevertheless, whereas, only, therefore, so. 

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

193. A clause which is used as an adjective, an adverb, 
or a substantive is a subordinate clause. 

194. An adjectival clause is introduced by (I) a relative 
pronoun (or adjective), (II) a relative adverb. 

83 



I. The relative pronouns are who, which, what and thai. 

II. Relative adverbs express: 

Time: when, whenever, as, while. 

Place: where and its compounds, whence, whither. 

Manner: as, how, however. 

Degree: as, the. 

Cause: why, wherefore. 

195. An adverbial clause is introduced by (I) a relative 
adverb, or (II) a subordinating conjunction. 

I. The commonest relative adverbs are given above. 

X II. The subordinating conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses of: 

Cause : because, since, as, for, that. 

Comparison: as, than. 

Concession: though, although. 

Condition: if, unless. 

Purpose: in order that, that, lest. 

Result : that. 

Time: after, before, ere, since, till, until. 

196. A substantive clause is introduced by (I) a relative 
pronoun, (II) an interrogative pronoun or adjective, (III) an 
interrogative adverb, (IV) a subordinating conjunction. 

I. The relative pronouns are given above. 

II. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 

III. The interrogative adverbs express: 

Time : when. 

Place: where, whence, whither. 

Manner : how. 

Cause: why, wherefore. 

IV. The subordinating conjunctions which most often introduce 
substantive clauses are if, that, and whether. 

197. Write sentences containing adjectival clauses intro- 
duced by a relative pronoun, a relative adjective, a relative 
adverb expressing time, and a relative adverb expressing place. 

198. Write sentences containing adverbial clauses intro- 
duced by relative adverbs expressing time, place, manner, 
and degree; and by adverbial clauses of cause, comparison, 
concession, condition, purpose, result, and time. 

1 Observe that the relative adverbs are classified according to their own meaning, 
the subordinating conjunctions according to the meaning of the clauses which they 
introduce. 

84 



199. Write sentences containing substantive clauses intro- 
duced by an interrogative pronoun; an interrogative adjec- 
tive; interrogative adverbs expressing time, place, manner, 
and cause; a subordinating conjunction. 

CHAPTER X 
SENTENCES 

200. A sentence which consists of two or more co-ordinate 
clauses is a compound sentence. 

201. A sentence which consists of one principal clause 
and one or more subordinate clauses is a complex sentence. 

202. Write a simple sentence, a compound sentence, a 
complex sentence, and a compound-complex sentence. 

203. Punctuation: In a compound sentence the following con- 
junctions are usually preceded by a comma: and, but, or, not. The 
following are usually preceded by a semicolon: also, yet, however, 
nevertheless, whereas, only, therefore, so. 

If the co-ordinating conjunction between the clauses is omitted, the 
clauses are separated by a semicolon. 

A semicolon between the clauses of a compound sentence, whether 
it precedes a conjunction or takes the place of a conjunction, usually 
indicates that the statement in one clause is explanation, cause, result, 
of that in the first or is in contrast to it. 

204. Write compound sentences indicating by the use of 
a semicolon that one statement is explanation, cause, or 
result of another, or is in contrast to it. (4 sentences.) 

205. Sentences are faulty in structure usually for one of 
the following reasons : 

1. Two or more statements which are not connected in thought are 
written as one sentence. 

"The potatoes for luncheon were boiled and I could hear the song 
of the sailors as they pulled upon the ropes." 

2. Two or more statements which are connected in thought are 
written without a co-ordinating conjunction to make the connection 
clear, or with the wrong co-ordinating conjunction. 

"The wind was blowing from the east and I could hear the song of 
the sailors as they pulled upon the ropes." 

3. Two statements, one of which is dependent in thought on the 

85 



other, are written as though they were of equal importance; that is, 
the proper ideas are not subordinated. 

"The wind was blowing from the east; so I could hear the song of 
the sailors as they pulled upon the ropes." 

4. The punctuation fails to make clear the connection between the 
ideas in the sentence. 

"The wind was blowing from the east, I could hear the song of the 
sailors as they pulled upon the ropes." 

5. The subject is changed unnecessarily. 

"The general ordered them to advance and they were almost im- 
mediately commanded by him to halt." 

206. The faults mentioned above are not by any means 
of equal importance. The first sentence given is entirely 
incorrect. It illustrates a mistake made usually only by 
those who are beginning to write and have not yet learned 
to arrange their thoughts before putting them on paper. 
The second sentence is almost as bad. The third is prefer- 
able to it because it at least makes clear the connection in 
thought between the two ideas. But the sentence is much 
more forceful if it is made complex rather than compound. 
"It was because the wind was blowing from the east that I 
could hear the song of the sailors as they pulled upon the 
ropes." The fourth sentence is entirely incorrect as it 
stands ; and if a semi-colon should be substituted for the 
comma, it still has the fault mentioned fifth if the change in 
subject is unnecessary. If it were written, "The wind blow- 
ing from the east brought to my ears the song of the sailors 
as they pulled upon the ropes," the blowing of the wind 
would be too strongly emphasized. Stevenson, as a matter 
of fact, wrote, "The wind was blowing from the east; I could 
hear the song of the sailors as they pulled upon the ropes." 

6. Statements which are closely enough connected in thought to be 
included in the same sentence are written as separate sentences. 

207 . In which group or groups of faults does each of the 
sentences in Exercise 10 belong? 

208. Combine the following statements into clear, forceful 
sentences : 

86 



I came on deck the next morning. The appearance of the island 
was altogether changed. We had made a great deal of way during the 
night. The breeze had now utterly ceased. We were now lying be- 
calmed. We were about half a mile to the south-east of the low eastern 
coast. Grey-colored woods covered a large part of the surface. There 
were streaks of yellow sandbreak in the lower lands. There were many 
tall trees of the pine family. They out-topped the others. Some of 
them were single. Some of them were in clumps. The general coloring 
was uniform and sad. The hills ran up clear above the vegetation. 
They ended in spires of naked rock. All were strangely shaped. The 
spy-glass was by three or four hundred feet the tallest on the island. 
It was likewise the strangest in configuration. It ran up sheer from 
almost every side. It was then suddenly cut off at the top like a pedestal 
to put a statue on. 

CHAPTER XI 
PARTS OF SPEECH 

209. There are eight parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, inter- 
jections. 

210. Several words may be used as several different parts 
of speech. It is important to remember that it is the use 
in the sentence that must be considered in classifying a word. 

You have seen that most of the words which are used as 
pronouns may also be used as adjectives. 

That may be used as a demonstrative pronoun, a demon- 
strative adjective, a relative pronoun, a subordinating con- 
junction. 

As what part of speech is that used in each of the following 
sentences ? 

"They were part of a circle of trees that grew round an irregular 
space of some three or four acres, and in all that space, as little Toomai 
could see, the ground had been trampled down as hard as a brick 
floor." Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

"... That brave and unfortunate Athos was wounded on that very 
shoulder against which I must run head foremost like a ram. The 
only thing that astonishes me is that he did not strike me dead at 
once. He had good cause to do so; the pain I gave him must have 
been atrocious. ..." Dumas, The Three Musketeers. 

87 



"There was not a breath of air moving, nor a sound but that of the 
surf booming half a mile away along the beaches and against the roeks 
outside." 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 

211. But may be used as a co-ordinating conjunction, a 
preposition, an adverb of degree. 

As what part of speech is but used in each of the following 
sentences : 

"Wearied arm and broken sword 
Wage in vain the desperate fight ; 
Round him press a countless horde, 
He is but a single knight." 

Thackeray, Pocahontas. 

" 'He is our brother in all but blood . . . .' ,: 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

" 'Kala Nag will obey none but me, so I must go with him into the 
Keddah, but he is only a righting elephant, and he does not help to 
rope them.' " 

Kipling, The Jungle Book. 

212. Like may be used as a noun, a verb, an adjective, 
an adverb. 

As what part of speech is like used in each of the following 
sentences? What case follows it when it is used as an 
adjective or an adverb? 

"Like the dew on the mountain, 
Like the foam on the river, 
Like the bubble on the fountain, 
Thou art gone; and for ever!" 

Scott, Coronach. 

"Looks it not like the King?" 

"Good Hamlet — let thine eye look like a friend on Denmark." 

"... I shall not look upon his like again." 

Shakespeare, Hamlet. 

"I like not lady-slippers, 
Nor yet the sweet-pea blossoms ; 
Nor yet the flaky roses, 
Red, or white as now ; 
88 



I like the chaliced lilies, 
The heavy Eastern lilies, 
The gorgeous tiger-lilies, 
That in our garden grow ! ' ' 

Aldrich, Tiger-Lilies. 

"Really it was no longer clear how life, with its manifold emergencies, 
was to be carried on at all without a fellow like the spotty horse, ready 
to step in at critical moments and take up just the part required of 
him." 

Grahame, Dream Days. 

213. Like is never followed by a clause. The subordi- 
nating conjunction which corresponds in meaning to the 
adverb like is as. 

What is the mistake in the following selection? 

There they live like the old Robin Hood of England. They say 
many young gentlemen flock to him every day, and fleet the time 
carelessly like they did in the golden world. 

214. As besides being a subordinating conjunction may 
be a preposition, a relative adverb, an adverb of degree. 

As what part of speech is as used in each of the following 
sentences ? In which of them is it used as a correlative ? 

" You can come too if you like,' said Harold, as soon as he was 
aware that I was sitting up in bed watching him." 

"In the evening we had read books, or fitfully drawn ships and 
battles on fly-leaves, apart, in separate corners, void of conversation 
or criticism, oppressed by the lowering tidiness of the universe, till 
bedtime came, and disrobement, and prayers even more mechanical 
than usual, and lastly bed itself without so much as a giraffe under the 
pillow." 

"Just as he said I could come if I liked, Charlotte slipped in, her 
face rigid and set." 

Grahame, Dream Days. 

215. As how many parts of speech may the words to, two, 
and too be used ? 

216. Give the part of speech of each word in the following 
selection : 

" 'You can draw water out of a water- well,' said the Hatter; 'so I 
should think you could draw treacle out of a treacle- well — eh, stupid? 5 

89 



" 'But they were in the well,' Alice said to the Dormouse, not 

choosing to notice this last remark. 

" 'Of course they were,' said the Dormouse, 'well in.' 

"This answer so confused poor Alice, that she let the Dormouse go 

on for some time without interrupting it." 

" 'Of course it is,' said the Duchess, who seemed ready to agree to 
everything that Alice said; 'there's a large mustard-mine near here. 
And the moral of that is — "The more there is of mine, the less there is 
of yours.'"" 

Carroll, Alice in Wonderland. 

CHAPTER XII 
POSITION OF WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES 

217. What is the usual order of subject and predicate in 
a sentence or a clause? 

218. What is the usual position of an adjective? of an 
adverb ? Some adverbs are naturally placed before the word 
they modify, some after. Only, for instance, stands usually 
before the word it modifies. Illustrate by sentences. Change 
the sentences so that the attention of the reader shall be 
particularly attracted to the adjective or adverb because of 
its position. 

219. What is the usual position of an adjectival clause? 
of an adverbial clause ? Illustrate by sentences. 

220. Rewrite the following selection placing every word, 
phrase, and clause as nearly as possible in its normal position. 

What does the passage as originally written gain by each 
deviation from the normal? 

"All this while, as I say, I was still running, and, without taking any 
notice, I had drawn near to the foot of the little hill with the two peaks, 
and had got into a part of the island where the live-oaks grew more 
widely apart, and seemed more like forest trees in their bearing and 
dimensions. Mingled with these were a few scattered pines, some 
fifty, some nearer seventy, feet high. The air too, smelt more freshly 
than down beside the marsh. 

"And here a fresh alarm brought me to a standstill with a thumping 
heart." 

Stevenson, Treasure Island. 
90 



"Away went Gilpin, neck or nought, 
Away went hat and wig ! 
He little dreamt when he set out 
Of running such a rig!" 

Cowper, The Diverting History 
of John Gilpin. 

" 'Good speed!' cried the watch as the gate-bolts undrew, 
1 Speed ! ' echoed the wall to us galloping through, 
Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, 
And into the midnight we galloped abreast." 

Browning, How They Brought the Good News 
from Ghent to Aix. 

CHAPTER XIII 
DIAGRAMS 

SIMPLE SENTENCES 

An object, modifying adjective, adverb, adjectival phrase, adverbial 
phrase, and a pronoun in the possessive case: 



boy 


had heard 


stories 




the 




often 




about elves 






fr 


om 


very 
mother 












his 





Predicate nominative: 
he 



was \ elf 



Predicate adjective and nominative in apposition: 

Ossa (goose-girl) stood — silent 



the 



91 



Independent elements: 

Nominative of address and interjection: 
oh 

Mary 

you are 



where 



Nominative of exclamation: 
fire 



they shuddered 



Nominative absolute: 
night 



having come 



suddenly 



travellers were lost 



the 



Indirect object: 





found 






dog 


she 


bone 












a 


poor 




her 





Noun used as adjunct: 

they elected him \ president 



92 



Adjective used as adjunct: 

she painted house — green 



the 



Noun in apposition with the object: 

he shot Garfield (president) 



the 



Adverbial objective: 



he came 



day 



every 



Subject of infinitive and predicate accusative: 

they chose him to be leader 



their 



Cognate accusative: 



she sang song 



Retained object: 



dog was found bone (retained) 



the 



Compound subject, object, and object of preposition: 
Mary and Ann made cakes and pies 



during morning and afternoon 
the 



whole 



93 



COMPOUND SENTENCE 

Mary j made cakes and Ann made pies 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 

Adjectival clause: 

(1) Introduced by a relative pronoun: 
boy did come 



the 



not 



for it 



I bought book 



the 



for whom 



(2) Introduced by a relative adverb: 

I remember I house 



the 



was born 



where 



Adverbial clause: 

(1) Introduced by a relative adverb, modifying a verb: 
she slept 

horses I rested 



the 



while 



94 



(2) Introduced by a subordinating conjunction, modifying an adverb: 
he is — strong 



as I (am) 



Substantive clause: 

(1) Used as subject, introduced by interrogative adverb: 
it had happened 



when 



was \ question 



the 



(2) Used as object, introduced by subordinating conjunction: 

he had failed 



he knew 



(3) Used in apposition, introduced by interrogative pronoun: 
it had cost what 



question ( 



) I 



in mind 



every one s 



(4) Used as object of a preposition, introduced by a compound 
relative pronoun: 

(you) | give it 



it may concern whomever 



to 



95 



INDEX 

(Numbers Indicate Pages) 



Accusative case 65, 67 

Adjectival clauses. . .52-55, 83, 84 
Adjectives, 

comparison of 46, 47 

definition of 44 

descriptive 44, 45 

form for parsing 49, 50 

kinds of 44, 45 

limiting 44, 45 

predicate. 47 

pronominal 77, 78 

proper 48 

uses of 47, 48 

Adverbial clauses 60, 61, 84 

Adverbs, 

comparison 56, 57 

definition of 55 

form for parsing 58 

kinds according to meaning, 

55, 56 
kinds according to use. . .57, 58 

interrogative 57 

relative 57 

Adjunct 47 

Articles 45 

As, uses of 89 

Auxiliary verbs 21, 36-42 

But, uses of 88 

Case, 

accusative 65-67 

declension of pronouns. . . 75-77 

nominative 62, 63 

possessive 64, 65, 69 

Clauses, 

adjectival 52-55, 83, 84 

adverbial 60, 61, 84 

co-ordinate 83, 85 

definition of 52 



Clauses (Contd.), 

subordinate 83, 85 

substantive 73, 74, 84 

words introducing 83-85 

Comparison, 

of adjectives 46, 47 

of adverbs 56 

Conjugation, 

emphatic 26, 29, 30 

formation of 21, 23 

of infinitives 24 

of participles 24 

progressive 26-28 

of subjunctives 31 

Conjunctions, 

co-ordinating 80, 81, 83 

distinguished from preposi- 
tions 80, 81 

subordinating 81, 82, 84 

Correlatives 82 

Declension of pronouns. ... 75, 77 

Expletives 6 

Gender 15-17 

Infinitives, 

complementary 36-40 

conjugation of 24 

used as adjectives 72, 73 

used as adverbs 72, 73 

used as nouns 72, 73 

Intensive pronouns 76, 77 

Like 88, 89 

Mood, 

imperative 6,30 

indicative 30 

infinitive 24 

subjunctive 3 1-36 

Nominative case 62, 63 

Notional verbs 36-42 



97 



Nouns, 

abstract 11-13 

case of 62-67 

collective 12, 13 

common 1 1-13 

definition of 10 

form for parsing 67, 68 

gender 15-17 

kinds of 11-13, 15-17 

number 13-17 

person 17 

proper 11-13 

Number, 

nouns 13-17 

pronouns 79 

verbs 25, 26 

Only, position in sentence of . . 90 

Parsing, 

of adjectives 49-5 1 

of adverbs 58, 59 

of nouns 67, 69-72 

of pronouns 67, 69-72 

of verbs 42-44 

Participle, 

conjugation of 24 

definition of 48 

incorrect use of 49 

Parts of speech 87-90 

Person, 

of nouns 17 

of pronouns 79 

of verbs 25 

Phrases, 

participial 48, 49 

prepositional 51, 52 

verb 21, 48 

Plural, 

rules for forming 13-15 

Position of words, phrases, 
clauses 90, 91 

Possessive case, 

uses of 64, 65 

rules for forming 64 



Predicate 18 

Prepositions, 

list of 51 

phrases 51, 52 

Prepositional phrases, 

used as adverbs 60 

used as adjectives 51, 52 

Pronouns, 

agreement with antecedent . 79 

case of .79, 80 

compound personal 76, 77 

declension 75, 77 

definition of 10 

demonstrative 77 

indefinite 77 

interrogative 77 

number of 79 

person of 79 

personal 75, 76 

relative 77 

Punctuation, 

of adjective clauses 54, 55 

of nominative of address ... 62 
of nominative in apposition . 63 
of nominative of exclamation 62 
of possessive case 64 

Reflexive pronouns 76, 77 

Sentences, 

definition of 5 

kinds of . . .-. 9, 85 

faults in 7-9, 85, 86, 87 

unity in 7-9 

Subject 10, 11, 62 

Subjunctive 31-36 

Subordinate clauses, 

52-55, 60, 61, 73-75, 81, 83-85 

Substantives 10, 11 

Substantive clauses 73, 74 

words introducing 84 

Tense 20, 24, 25 

That, uses of 87, 88 

To, too, two, uses of 89 

Verbal nouns 68-72 



98 



Verbs, 

auxiliary 21, 36-42 

complete 19 

conjugation of 21, 22-24, 31 

definition of 18 

kinds of 18-20, 24 

linking 19 

mood of 30 

notional 36-42 



Verbs (Contd.), 

number of 25, 26 

person of 25 

principal parts of 23, 24 

regular 24 

tense of 20, 24, 25 

transitive 18 

voice of 18 



99 



